Hostname: page-component-54dcc4c588-tfzs5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-12T16:15:53.673Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Review of Lichenometric Dating and Its Applications to Archaeology

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

James B. Benedict
James B. Benedict*
Affiliation:
Center for Mountain Archeology, 8297 Overland Road, Ward CO 80481
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Lichenometry—a method developed by geologists for dating Holocene moraines and other landforms—has many potential applications in archaeology. Maximum-diameter lichenometry can suggest ages for features that were initially lichen-free, such as the moai of Easter Island, and rock surfaces exposed by toolstone quarrying. Size-frequency analysis can provide dates for structures built of lichen-covered rocks, such as game-drive walls and blinds, meat caches, and tent rings. Both methods require local calibration curves, best constructed by measuring lichens on substrata of known exposure age. Most lichenometric studies have involved yellow members of the crustose genus Rhizocarpon, which grow slowly and can live for as long as 10,000 years. Lichenometry has been particularly successful on siliceous rock types in arctic, subarctic, and alpine-tundra environments. The effects of wildfire and of competition from foliose lichens make the technique less well suited for forested terrain. Few data are available for tropical or desert environments or for calcareous substrata. The reliability of a lichenometric date will depend on the quality of the calibration curve, the size of the sample, the nature and postoccupational history of the substratum, and the ability of the archaeologist to recognize potential disturbance factors. An ecological perspective is essential. Known archaeological applications and problems are discussed.

Résumé

Résumé

La liquenometría—un método desarrollado por geólogos para estimar las edades de morenas y otros relieves terrestres del Holeoceno-tiene muchos aplicaciónes potenciales en arqueología. Los diámetros máximos de líquenes pueden proveer fechas para objectos que originalmente no los poseían, por ejemplo los moai de la Isla Pascua, y las rocas de las canteras utilizadas para la fabricación de herramientas. Análisis de tamaño-frequencia puede brindar estimaciones de las edades de estructuras construidas de piedras previamente cubiertas de líquenes, tales como los muros y refugios usados para la caza y el acecho, depósitos para la carne, y los cimientos de las tiendas. Ambos métodos requieren curvas de calibración derivados localmente, mejor construidas midiendo líquenes en superficies de edad conocida. La mayoridad de estudios liquenometricos han empleado especies amarillas del género Rhizocarpon, las que crecen lentamente y pueden vivir mientras 10,000 años. La liquenometría ha sido particularmente exitosa sobre piedras siliciosas en la tundra ártica y alpina. Los efectos de fuego, y la competencia de líquenes foliosos, hacen el método menos idóneo para ser utilizado en el terreno forestal. Poca información existe sobre los medios ambientes tropicales o desérticos. La fiabilidad de una fecha liquenométrica dependeré de la calidad de la curva de calibración, la magnitud de la muestra, el carácter y la historia post-ocupacional de la superficie, y la capacidad del arqueólogo para reconocer potenciales factores de alteración. Una perspectiva ecológica es esencial. Aplicaciones y problemas arqueológicos conocidos están discutidos.

Information

Type
Reports
Information
American Antiquity , Volume 74 , Issue 1 , January 2009 , pp. 143 - 172
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

References Cited

Albino, Katharine C. 1984 Relative Dating and Soils of Late Quaternary Deposits, Devil’s Thumb Lake Valley, Colorado Front Range. Unpublished Masters thesis, Department of Geology, University of Colorado, Boulder.Google Scholar
André, Marie-Françoise 1986 Dating Slope Deposits and Estimating Rates of Rock Wall Retreat in Northwest Spitsbergen by Lichenometry. Geografiska Annaler 68A:65–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Andrews, J. T., and Webber, P. J. 1964 A Lichenometrical Study of the Northwestern Margin of the Barnes Ice Cap: A Geomorphological Technique. Geographical Bulletin 22:80–104.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Richard A. 1976 Studies on the Growth Rates of Lichens. In Lichenology: Progress and Problems, edited by D. H. Brown, D. L. Hawksworth, and R. H. Bailey, pp. 309–322. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Richard A. 1977 The Response of Lichen Growth to Transplantation to Rock Surfaces of Different Aspect. New Phytologist 78:473–478.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Richard A. 1983 Growth Curve of the Lichen Rhizocarpon geographicum . New Phytologist 94:619–622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Armstrong, Richard A. 1984 The Influence of Bird Droppings and Uric Acid on the Radial Growth of Five Species of Saxicolous Lichens. Environmental and Experimental Botany 24:95–99.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Richard A. 2002 The Effect of Rock Surface Aspect on Growth, Size Structure and Competition in the Lichen Rhizocarpon geographicum . Environmental and Experimental Botany 48:187–194.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Richard A. 2005 Growth Curves of Four Crustose Lichens. Symbiosis 38:47–57.Google Scholar
Armstrong, R. A., and Smith, S. N. 1987 Development and Growth of the Lichen Rhizocarpon geographicum . Symbiosis 3:287–300.Google Scholar
Asta, Juliette, and Letrout-Galinou, Marie-Agnès 1995 Observations on the Early Growth of Rhizocarpon geographicum Thalli. Herzogia 11:239–252.Google Scholar
Bamforth, Douglas B. 1998 Survey and Test Excavations at 5GA872, the Windy Ridge Quartzite Quarry. University of Colorado, Boulder. Report submitted to the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service (Routt National Forest) and Bureau of Land Management (Kremmling Resource Area), Contract No. CCS-02-11-000-91-15.Google Scholar
Beck, J. Warren, and Burr, George S. 2003 Mata Ki Te Rangi: Eyes Towards the Heavens. Climate and Radiocarbon Dates. In Easter Island. Scientific Exploration into the World’s Environmental Problems in Microcosm, edited by John Loret and John T. Tanacredi, pp. 93–111. Kluwer Academic/Plenum, New York.Google Scholar
Begét, James E. 1994 Tephrochronology, Lichenometry and Radiocarbon Dating at Gulkana Glacier, Central Alaska Range, USA. The Holocene 4:307–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benedict, Audrey D. 2008 The Naturalist’s Guide to the Southern Rockies. Colorado, Southern Wyoming, and Northern New Mexico. Fulcrum, Golden, Colorado.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1967 Recent Glacial History of an Alpine Area in the Colorado Front Range, U.S.A., I. Establishing a Lichen-Growth Curve. Journal of Glaciology 6:817–832.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1968 Recent Glacial History of an Alpine Area in the Colorado Front Range, U.S.A., II. Dating the Glacial Deposits. Journal of Glaciology 7:77–87.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1975 The Murray Site: A Late Prehistoric Game Drive System in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. Plains Anthropologist 20:161–174.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1981 The Fourth of July Valley. Glacial Geology and Archeology of the Timberline Ecotone. Research Report 2. Center for Mountain Archeology, Ward, Colorado.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1985 Arapaho Pass. Glacial Geology and Archeology at the Crest of the Colorado Front Range. Research Report 3. Center for Mountain Archeology, Ward, Colorado.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1987 A Fasting Bed and Game Drive Site on the Continental Divide in the Colorado Front Range. Southwestern Lore, Journal of Colorado Archaeology 53:1–27.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1988 Techniques in Lichenometry: Identifying the Yellow Rhizocarpons . Arctic and Alpine Research 20:285–291.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1990a Lichen Mortality Due to Late-Lying Snow: Results of a Transplant Study. Arctic and Alpine Research 22:81–89.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1990b Experiments on Lichen Growth. I. Seasonal Patterns and Environmental Controls. Arctic and Alpine Research 22:244–254.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1990c Winter Frost Injury to Lichens—Colorado Front Range. The Bryologist 93:423–426.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1991 Experiments on Lichen Growth II. Effects of a Seasonal Snow Cover. Arctic and Alpine Research 23:189–199.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1992 Field and Laboratory Studies of Patterned Ground in a Colorado Alpine Region. Occasional Paper 49. University of Colorado, Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1993 A 2000-Year Lichen-Snowkill Chronology for the Colorado Front Range, USA. The Holocene 3:27–33.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1996 The Game Drives of Rocky Mountain National Park. Research Report 7. Center for Mountain Archeology, Ward, Colorado.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 1999 Effects of Changing Climate on Game-Animal and Human Use of the Colorado High Country (U.S.A.) Since 1000 BC. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 31:1–15.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 2000 Game Drives of the Devil’s Thumb Pass Area. In This Land of Shining Mountains. Archeological Studies in Colorado’s Indian Peaks Wilderness Area, edited by E. Steve Cassells, pp. 18–94. Research Report 8. Center for Mountain Archeology, Ward, Colorado.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 2005a Rethinking the Fourth of July Valley Site: A Study in Glacial and Periglacial Geoarchaeology. Geoarchaeology 20:797–836.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 2005b Tundra Game Drives: An Arctic-Alpine Comparison. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 37:425–434.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B. 2008 Experiments on Lichen Growth, III. The Shape of the Age-Size Curve. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 40:15–26.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B., and Steve Cassells, E. 2000 The Bob Lake Game Drive. In This Land of Shining Mountains. Archeological Studies in Colorado’s Indian Peaks Wilderness Area, edited by E. Steve Cassells, pp. 1–17. Research Report 8. Center for Mountain Archeology, Ward, Colorado.Google Scholar
Benedict, James B., and Nash III, Thomas H. 1990 Radial Growth and Habitat Selection by Morphologically Similar Chemotypes of Xanthoparmelia . The Bryologist 93:319–327.Google Scholar
Beschel, Roland 1950 Flechten als Altersmaßstab Rezenter Moränen [Lichens as a Measure of the Age of Recent Moraines]. Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde und Glazialgeologie, N.F., 1:152–161. (Reissued in English translation by William Ban, 1973, Arctic and Alpine Research 5:303–309.)Google Scholar
Beschel, Roland 1954 Growth of Lichens, a Mathematical Indicator of Climate. Abstracts, VIII Congres International de Botanique, Paris, 1954, Sect. 7–8:148.Google Scholar
Beschel, Roland 1955 Individuum und Alter bei Fletchten [Individuality and Age of Lichens]. Phyton 6:59–68.Google Scholar
Beschel, Roland 1957 Lichenometrie im Gletschervorfeld [Lichenometry in the Glacier Foreland], Jahrbuch zum Schutze der Alpenpflanzen und -Tiere 22:164–185.Google Scholar
Beschel, Roland 1958 Flechtenvereine der Städte, Stadtflechten und ihr Wachstum [Lichen Associations in Cities, City Lichens, and Their Growth], Berichte des Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischen Vereins in Innsbruck 52:1–158.Google Scholar
Beschel, Roland 1961 Dating Rock Surfaces by Lichen Growth and Its Application to Glaciology and Physiography (Lichenometry). In Geology of the Arctic, 2, edited by Gilbert O. Raasch, pp. 1044–1062. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beschel, Roland E., and Weidick, Anker 1973 Geobotanical and Geomorphological Reconnaissance in West Greenland, 1961. Arctic and Alpine Research 5:311–319.Google Scholar
Bettinger, Robert L. 1991 Native Land Use: Archaeology and Anthropology. In Natural History of the White-Inyo Range, Eastern California, edited by Clarence A. Hall Jr., pp. 463–486. University of California Press, Berkeley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettinger, Robert L., and Oglesby, Robert 1985 Lichen Dating of Alpine Villages in the White Mountains, California. Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 7:202–224.Google Scholar
Bradwell, Tom 2004 Lichenometrie Dating in Southeast Iceland: The Size-Frequency Approach. Geografiska Annaler 86A:31–41.Google Scholar
Bradwell, Tom, and Armstrong, Richard A. 2007 Growth Rates of Rhizocarpon geographicum Lichens: A Review with New Data from Iceland. Journal of Quaternary Science 22:311–320.Google Scholar
Bradwell, Tom, Dugmore, Andrew J., and Sugden, David E. 2006 The Little Ice Age Glacier Maximum in Iceland and the North Atlantic Oscillation: Evidence from Lambatungnajökull, Southeast Iceland. Boreas 35:61–80.Google Scholar
Brink, Jack W. 2005 Inukshuk: Caribou Drive Lanes on Southern Victoria Island, Nunavut, Canada. Arctic Anthropology 42:1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broadbent, Noel 1987 Lichenometry and Archaeology. Testing of Lichen Chronology on the Swedish North Bothnian Coast. Research Report 2. Umeå University, Center for Arctic Cultural Research, Umeå.Google Scholar
Broadbent, N. D., and Bergqvist, K. I. 1986 Lichenometrie Chronology and Archaeological Features on Raised Beaches: Preliminary Results from the Swedish North Bothnian Coastal Region. Arctic and Alpine Research 18:297–306.Google Scholar
Brodo, Irwin M. 1964 Field Studies of the Effects of Ionizing Radiation on Lichens. The Bryologist 67:76–87.Google Scholar
Brodo, Irwin M., Sharnoff, Sylvia D., and Sharnoff, Stephen 2001 Lichens of North America. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Bull, William B. 1996a Dating San Andreas Fault Earthquakes with Lichenometry. Geology 24:111–114.Google Scholar
Bull, William B. 1996b Prehistorical Earthquakes on the Alpine Fault, New Zealand. Journal of Geophysical Research 101(B3):6037–6050.Google Scholar
Bull, William B., and Brandon, Mark T. 1998 Lichen Dating of Earthquake-Generated Regional Rockfall Events, Southern Alps, New Zealand. Geological Society of America Bulletin 110:60–84.Google Scholar
Calkin, Parker E., and Ellis, James M. 1984 Development and Application of a Lichenometrie Dating Curve, Brooks Range, Alaska. In Quaternary Dating Methods, edited by W. C. Mahaney, pp. 227–246. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.Google Scholar
Canaday, Timothy W. 1997 Prehistoric Alpine Hunting Patterns in the Great Basin. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle.Google Scholar
Carrara, P. E., and Andrews, J. T. 1973 Problems and Application of Lichenometry to Geomorphic Studies, San Juan Mountains, Colorado. Arctic and Alpine Research 5:373–384.Google Scholar
Caseldine, Chris 1985 The Extent of Some Glaciers in Northern Iceland During the Little Ice Age and the Nature of Recent Deglaciation. Geographical Journal 151:215–227.Google Scholar
Caseldine, Chris 1991 Lichenometric Dating, Lichen Population Studies and Holocene Glacial History in Trollaskagi, Northern Iceland. In Environmental Change in Iceland: Past and Present, edited by Judith K. Maizels and Chris Caseldine, pp. 219–233. Kluwer Academic Publishers, the Netherlands.Google Scholar
Cassells, E. Steve 2000 Coming into the High Country: The Archaeology of the Sawtooth Game Drive. In This Land of Shining Mountains. Archeological Studies in Colorado’s Indian Peaks Wilderness Area, edited by E. Steve Cassells, pp. 189–215. Research Report 8. Center for Mountain Archeology, Ward, Colorado.Google Scholar
Cassells, E. Steve 2002 Lichenometric Dating of Prehistoric Cairns at the 5LR7095 Rock Feature Site, Rocky Mountain National Park, North Central Colorado. Department of Anthropology, University of Northern Colorado, and Rocky Mountain National Park, National Park Service, Cooperative Agreement CA 1268-1-9012, Project ROMO R01-0062.Google Scholar
Chapin, Frederick H. 1889 Mountaineering in Colorado. The Peaks About Estes Park. Appalachian Mountain Club, Boston.Google Scholar
Clark, J. M., and Peterson, E. B. 1968 Insolation in Relation to Cloud Characteristics in the Colorado Front Range. In Arctic and Alpine Environments, edited by H. E. Wright Jr. and W. H. Osburn, pp. 3–11. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.Google Scholar
Clayden, Stephen R. 1997 Intraspecific Interactions and Parasitism in an Association of Rhizocarpon lecanorinum and R. geographicum . Lichenologist 29:533–545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook-Talbot, Judith D. 1991 Sorted Circles, Relative-Age Dating and Palaeoenvironmental Reconstruction in an Alpine Periglacial Environment, Eastern Jotunheimen, Norway: Lichenometric and Weathering-Based Approaches. The Holocene 1:128–141.Google Scholar
Coxson, D. S., and Kershaw, K. A. 1983a The Ecology of Rhizocarpon superficiale. I. The Rock Surface Boundary-Layer Microclimate. Canadian Journal of Botany 61:3009–3018.Google Scholar
Coxson, D. S., and Kershaw, K. A. 1983b The Ecology of Rhizocarpon superficiale. II. The Seasonal Response of Net Photosynthesis and Respiration to Temperature, Moisture, and Light. Canadian Journal of Botany 61:3019–3030.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curry, Robert R. 1969 Holocene Climatic and Glacial History of the Central Sierra Nevada, California. In United States Contributions to Quaternary Research, edited by Stanley A. Schumm and William C. Bradley, pp. 1–47. Geological Society of America Special Paper, 123.Google Scholar
Denton, George H., and Karlén, Wibjörn 1973 Lichenometry: Its Application to Holocene Moraine Studies in Southern Alaska and Swedish Lapland. Arctic and Alpine Research 5:347–372.Google Scholar
Dietrich, R. V. 1977 Wind Erosion by Snow. Journal of Glaciology 18:148–149.Google Scholar
Ellis, James M., and Calkin, Parker E. 1984 Chronology of Holocene Glaciation, Central Brooks Range, Alaska. Geological Society of America Bulletin 95:897–912.Google Scholar
Feuerer, T. 1978 Zur Kenntnis der Flechtengattung Rhizocarpon in Bayern [Information on the Lichen Genus Rhizocarpon in Bavaria]. Berichte der Bayerischen Botanischen Gesellschaft zur Erforschung der heimischen Flora 49:59–135.Google Scholar
Follmann, Gerhard 1961 Lichenometrische Altersbestimmungen an vorchristlichen Steinsetzungen der polynesischen Osterinsel [Lichenometric Dating of Pre-Christian Stone Monuments on Easter Island in Polynesia], Die Naturwissenschaften 19:627–628.Google Scholar
Follmann, Gerhard 1965 Das Alter der Steinriesen auf der Osterinsel. Flechtenstudien als Hilfsmittel der Datierung [The Age of the Stone Colossi on Easter Island. Lichen Studies as an Aid in Dating]. Umschau in Wissenschaft und Technik 12:374–377.Google Scholar
Frey, Ed. 1959 Die Flechtenflora und-Vegetation des Nationalparks im Unterengadin, II. Die Entwicklung der Flechtenyegetation auf photogrammetrisch kontrollierten Dauerflächen [The Lichen Flora and Vegetation of the Lower Engadine National Park. II. Lichen Development on Photogrammetrically Controlled Permanent Plots]. Ergebnisse der wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen des schweizerischen Nationalparks 6:237–319.Google Scholar
Gannutz, T. P. 1970 Photosynthesis and Respiration of Plants in the Antarctic Peninsula Area. Antarctic Journal of the United States 5:49–52.Google Scholar
Gellatly, Anne F. 1982 Lichenometry as a Relative-Age Dating Method in Mount Cook National Park, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 20:343–353.Google Scholar
Gellatly, Anne F. 1983 Revised Dates for 2 Recent Moraines of the Mueller Glacier, Mt Cook National Park (Note). New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 26:311–315.Google Scholar
Gregory, Ken J. 1976 Lichens and the Determination of River Channel Capacity. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 1:273–285.Google Scholar
Haeberli, Wilifred, King, Lorenz, and Flotron, Andre 1979 Surface Movement and Lichen Cover Studies at the Active Rock Glacier near the Grubengletscher, Wallis, Swiss Alps. Arctic and Alpine Research 11:421–441.Google Scholar
Haines, Francis 1938 The Northward Spread of Horses Among the Plains Indians. American Anthropologist 40:429–437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hale, Mason E. Jr. 1982 Lichens as Bioindicators and Monitors of Air Pollution in the Flat Tops Wilderness Area, Colorado. Final Report, Forest Service Contract No. OM RFP R2-81-SP35.Google Scholar
Hale, Mason E. Jr. 1983 The Biology of Lichens. 3rd ed. Edward Arnold, London.Google Scholar
Hawksworth, David L., and Hill, David J. 1984 The Lichen-Forming Fungi. Blackie, Glasgow.Google Scholar
Haworth, Leah A., Calkin, Parker E., and Ellis, James M. 1986 Direct Measurement of Lichen Growth in the Central Brooks Range, Alaska, U.S.A., and Its Application to Lichenometric Dating. Arctic and Alpine Research 18:289–296.Google Scholar
Hearne, Samuel 1911 A Journey from Prince of Wales’s Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, and 1772. Champlain Society, Toronto.Google Scholar
Honegger, Rosmarie 1980 The Ascus Apex in Lichenized Fungi II. The Rhizocarpon-Type. Lichenologist 12:157–172.Google Scholar
Hunt, Terry L., and Lipo, Carl P. 2006 Late Colonization of Easter Island. Science 311:1603–1606.Google Scholar
Hutchinson, Lewis A. 1990 Archaeological Investigations of High Altitude Sites near Monarch Pass, Colorado. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins.Google Scholar
Innes, John L. 1983 Use of an Aggregated Rhizocarpon “Species” in Lichenometry: An Evaluation. Boreas 12:183–190.Google Scholar
Innes, John L. 1985a Lichenometric Dating of Debris-Flow Deposits on Alpine Colluvial Fans in Southwest Norway. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 10:519–524.Google Scholar
Innes, John L. 1985b Lichenometry. Progress in Physical Geography 9:187–254.Google Scholar
Jenness, Diamond 1922 Report of the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913–18. Vol. XII: The Life of the Copper Eskimos. F. A. Acland, Ottawa.Google Scholar
John, Elizabeth A. 1989 Note on the Sizes of Largest Thalli of Three Species of Rhizocarpon (Subgenus Rhizocarpon) at a Rockslide in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Arctic and Alpine Research 21:185–187.Google Scholar
Jonasson, Christer, Kot, Marek, and Kotarba, Adam 1991 Lichenometrical Studies and Dating of Debris Flow Deposits in the High Tatra Mountains, Poland. Geografiska Annaler 73A:141–146.Google Scholar
Kappen, Ludger 1993a Lichens in the Antarctic Region. In Antarctic Microbiology, edited by E. Imre Friedmann, pp. 433–490. Wiley-Liss, New York.Google Scholar
Kappen, Ludger 1993b Plant Activity Under Snow and Ice, with Particular Reference to Lichens. Arctic 46:297–302.Google Scholar
Kappen, L., Sommerkorn, M., and Schroeter, B. 1995 Carbon Acquisition and Water Relations of Lichens in Polar Regions—Potentials and Limitations. Lichenologist 27:531–545.Google Scholar
Kelsall, John P. 1968 The Migratory Barren-Ground Caribou of Canada. Queen’s Printer, Ottawa.Google Scholar
King, L., and Lehmann, R. 1973 Beobachtungen zur Oekologie und Morphologie von Rhizocarpon geographicum (L.) DC. und Rhizocarpon alpicola (Hepp.) Rabenh. im Gletschervorfeld des Steingletschers [Observations on the Ecology and Morphology of Rhizocarpon geographicum {L.} DC and Rhizocarpon alpicola {Hepp.} Rabenh. in the Glaciated Foreland of the Steingletscher]. Berichte der Schweizerischen Botanischen Gesellschaft 83:139–147.Google Scholar
Lawry, James D., and Hale, Mason E. Jr. 1979 Lichen Growth Responses to Stress Induced by Automobile Exhaust Pollution. Science 204:423–424.Google Scholar
Leonard, B. F., and Rosentreter, Roger 1994 Dating a 20th-century Fault, Elk Summit Talus Apron, Big Creek Area, Valley County, Idaho. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 2101:1–13.Google Scholar
Linnaeus, Carl 1959 Species Plantarum. A Facsimile of the First Edition, 1753, Vol. 2. Ray Society, London.Google Scholar
Locke, Charlene W., and Locke, William W. III 1977 Little Ice Age Snow-Cover Extent and Paleoglaciation Thresholds: North-Central Baffin Island, N.W.T., Canada. Arctic and Alpine Research 9:291–300.Google Scholar
Locke, W. W. III, Andrews, J. T., and Webber, P. J. 1979 A Manual for Lichenometry. British Geomorphological Research Group, Technical Bulletin 26:1–47.Google Scholar
Lowell, Thomas V., Schoenenberger, Katherine, Deddens, James A., Denton, George H., Smith, Colby, Black, Jessica, and Hendy, Chris H. 2005 Rhizocarpon Calibration Curve for the Aoraki/Mount Cook Area of New Zealand. Journal of Quaternary Science 20:313–325.Google Scholar
Luckman, Brian H. 1977 Lichenometric Dating of Holocene Moraines at Mount Edith Cavell, Jasper, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 14:1809–1822.Google Scholar
Matthews, John A. 1974 Families of Lichenometric Dating Curves from the Storbreen Gletschervorfeld, Jotunheimen, Norway. Norsk geografisk Tidsskrift 28:215–235.Google Scholar
Matthews, John A. 1975 Experiments on the Reproducibility and Reliability of Lichenometric Dates, Storbreen Gletschervorfeld, Jotunheimen, Norway. Norsk geografisk Tidsskrift 29:97–109.Google Scholar
Matthews, John A. 1994 Lichenometric Dating: A Review with Particular Reference to “Little Ice Age” Moraines in Southern Norway. In Dating in Exposed and Surface Contexts, edited by Charlotte Beck, pp. 185–212. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Matthews, John A. 2005 “Little Ice Age” Glacier Variations in Jotunheimen, Southern Norway: A Study in Regionally Controlled Lichenometric Dating of Recessional Moraines with Implications for Climate and Lichen Growth Rates. The Holocene 15:1–19.Google Scholar
McCarroll, Danny, Shakesby, Richard A., and Matthews, John A. 1998 Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Late Holocene Rock-fall Activity on a Norwegian Talus Slope: A Lichenometric and Simulation-Modeling Approach. Arctic and Alpine Research 30:51–60.Google Scholar
McCarroll, Danny, Shakesby, Richard A., and Matthews, John A. 2001 Enhanced Rockfall Activity During the Little Ice Age: Further Lichenometric Evidence from a Norwegian Talus. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 12:157–164.Google Scholar
McCarthy, Daniel P., and Zaniewski, Kamil 2001 Digital Analysis of Lichen Cover: A Technique for Use in Lichenometry and Lichenology. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 33:107–113.Google Scholar
McKinzey, Krista M., Orwin, John F., and Bradwell, Tom 2004 Re-Dating the Moraines at Skálafellsjökull and Heinabergsjbkull Using Different Lichenometric Methods: Implications for the Timing of the Icelandic Little Ice Age Maximum. Geografiska Annaler 86A:319–335.Google Scholar
Menounos, Brian P. 1996 A Holocene Debris-Flow Chronology for an Alpine Catchment, Colorado Front Range. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Geography, University of Colorado.Google Scholar
Miller, C. Daniel 1969 Chronology of Neoglacial Moraines in the Dome Peak Area, North Cascade Range, Washington. Arctic and Alpine Research 1:49–65.Google Scholar
Miller, G. H., and Andrews, J. T. 1972 Quaternary History of Northern Cumberland Peninsula, East Baffin Island, N.W.T., Canada. Part VI: Preliminary Lichen Growth Curve for Rhizocarpon geogaphicum . Geological Society of America Bulletin 83:1133–1138.Google Scholar
Mottershead, D. N. 1980 Lichenometry—Some Recent Applications. In Timescales in Geomorphology, edited by R. A. Cullingford, D. A. Davidson, and J. Lewin, pp. 95–108. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.Google Scholar
Mottershead, D. N., and White, I. D. 1972 The Lichenometric Dating of Glacier Recession. Tunsbergdal, Southern Norway. Geografiska Annaler 54A:47–52.Google Scholar
Nash, Thomas H. III 1996a Nutrients, Elemental Accumulation and Mineral Cycling. In Lichen Biology, edited by Thomas H. Nash III, pp. 136–153. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Nash, Thomas H. III 1996b Photosynthesis, Respiration, Productivity and Growth. In Lichen Biology, edited by Thomas H. Nash III, pp. 88–120. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Nikonov, A. A., and Shebalina, T. Yu. 1979 Lichenometry and Earthquake Age Determination in Central Asia. Nature 280:675–677.Google Scholar
Nyberg, Rolf, and Lindh, Lars 1990 Geomorphic Features as Indicators of Climatic Fluctuations in a Periglacial Environment, Northern Sweden. Geografiska Annaler 72A:203–210.Google Scholar
O’Neal, Michael A., and Schoenenberger, Katherine R. 2003 A Rhizocarpon geographicum Growth Curve for the Cascade Range of Washington and Northern Oregon, USA. Quaternary Research 6:233–241.Google Scholar
Orombelli, Giuseppe, and Porter, Stephen C. 1983 Lichen Growth Curves for the Southern Flank of the Mont Blanc Massif, Western Italian Alps. Arctic and Alpine Research 15:193–200.Google Scholar
Osborn, Gerald, and Taylor, John 1975 Lichenometry on Calcareous Substrates in the Canadian Rockies. Quaternary Research 5:111–120.Google Scholar
Pech, P., Jomelli, V., Baumgart-Kotarba, M., Bravard, J. P., Chardon, M., Jacob, N., Kedzia, S., Kotarba, A., Raczkowska, Z., and Tsao, C. 2003 A Lichenometric Growth Curve in the French Alps: Ailefroide and Veneon Valleys; Massif des Ecrins. Geodinamica Acta 16:187–193.Google Scholar
Pentecost, A. 1979 Aspect and Slope Preferences in a Saxicolous Lichen Community. Lichenologist 11:81–83.Google Scholar
Poelt, J. 1988 Rhizocarpon Ram. em. Th. Fr. Subgen. Rhizocarpon in Europe. Revised and corrected by Z. Černohorský. Translated from German by Judith Schaefer. Arctic and Alpine Research 20:292–298.Google Scholar
Porter, Stephen C. 1981 Lichenometric Studies in the Cascade Range of Washington: Establishment of Rhizocarpon geographicum Growth Curves at Mount Rainier. Arctic and Alpine Research 13:11–23.Google Scholar
Purvis, William 2000 Lichens. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., in association with the Natural History Museum, London.Google Scholar
Reger, Richard D., and Pewe, Troy L. 1969 Lichenometric Dating in the Central Alaska Range. In The Periglacial Environment, Past and Present, edited by Troy L. Péwé, pp. 223–247. McGill-Queen’s University Press and Arctic Institute of North America, Montreal.Google Scholar
Renaud, E. B. 1939 Report on Lichen of Spanish Diggings. University of Wyoming. Work Projects Administration, Work Project No. 885, Official Project No. 665-83-3-17, Wyoming Archaeological Project. Quarterly Report, October, November, and December 1939.Google Scholar
Ried, A. 1960 Stoffwechsel und Verbreitungsgrenzen von Hechten. II. Wasser-und Assimilationshaushalt, Entquellungs-und Submersionsresistenz von Krustenflechten benachbarder Standorte [Metabolism and Distribution Limits of Lichens. II. Water and Carbon Balance, Dehydration Resistance, and Submersion Tolerance of Crustose Lichens at Adjacent Sites]. Flora (Jena) 149:345–385.Google Scholar
Rodbell, Donald T. 1992 Lichenometric and Radiocarbon Dating of Holocene Glaciation, Cordillera Blanca, Perú. The Holocene 2:19–29.Google Scholar
Routledge, Katherine 1919 The Mystery of Easter Island: The Story of an Expedition. Sifton, Praed and Co., London.Google Scholar
Runemark, Hans 1956a Studies in Rhizocarpon, I. Taxonomy of the Yellow Species in Europe. Opera Botanica 2(1):1–152.Google Scholar
Runemark, Hans 1956b Studies in Rhizocarpon, II. Distribution and Ecology of the Yellow Species in Europe. Opera Botanica 2(2): 1–150.Google Scholar
Rutherford, Susannah, Shepardson, Brett, and Stephen, Jesse 2008 A Preliminary Lichenometry Study on Rapa Nui—The Rapa Nui Youth Involvement Program Report. Rapa Nui Journal. The Journal of the Easter Island Foundation 22:40–47.Google Scholar
Sancho, Leopoldo G., Palacios, David, de Marcos, Javier, and Valladares, Fernando 2001 Geomorphological Significance of Lichen Colonization in a Present Snow Hollow: Hoya del Cuchillar de las Navajas, Sierra de Gredos (Spain). Catena 43:323–340.Google Scholar
Santesson, Rolf 1993 The Lichens and Lichenicolous Fungi of Sweden and Norway. SBT-förlaget, Lund.Google Scholar
Savoskul, Oxana S. 1999 Holocene Glacier Advances in the Headwaters of Sredniaya Avacha, Kamchatka, Russia. Quaternary Research 52:14–26.Google Scholar
Savoskul, Oxana S., and Zech, Wolfgang 1997 Holocene Glacier Advances in the Topolovaya Valley, Bystrinskiy Range, Kamchatka, Russia, Dated by Tephrochronology and Lichenometry. Arctic and Alpine Research 29:143–155.Google Scholar
Scudari, L. 1983 Late Holocene Climatic and Glacial History, Sierra Nevada, California. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
Seaward, M. R. D. 1976 Performance of Lecanora muralis in an Urban Environment. In Lichenology: Progress and Problems, edited by D. H. Brown, D. L. Hawksworth, and R. H. Bailey, pp. 323–357. Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Sjoberg, Rabbe 1987 Undersökningar av Fornminnesplatser inom Forsa Socken Hälsingland, med Schmidt Test-hammer och Lichenometriska Dateringar på Hornslandsudde [Investigations of Sites with Ancient Remains in Forsa Parish, Hälsingland, with the Schmidt Test-Hammer and Lichenometric Dating at Hornslandsudde], Research Report 6. Umeå University, Center for Arctic Cultural Research, Umeå.Google Scholar
Solomina, Olga, and Calkin, Parker E. 2003 Lichenometry as Applied to Moraines in Alaska, U.S.A., and Kamchatka, Russia. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 35:129–143.Google Scholar
Solomina, O. N., Muraviev, Ya. D., and Bazanova, L. I. 1995 Little Ice Age Glaciers in Kamchatka. Annals of Glaciology 216:240–244.Google Scholar
Spiess, Arthur E. 1979 Reindeer and Caribou Hunters. An Archaeological Study. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M., and Reimer, P. J. 2005 Radiocarbon Calibration Program, CALIB Rev. 5.02. Electronic document, http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/html, accessed April 21, 2007.Google Scholar
Tehler, Anders 1996 Systematics, Phylogeny and Classification. In Lichen Biology, edited by Thomas H. Nash III, pp. 217–239. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Ten Brink, Norman W. 1973 Lichen Growth Rates in West Greenland. Arctic and Alpine Research 5:323–331.Google Scholar
Thompson, Alan, and Jones, Arnold 1986 Rates and Causes of Proglacial River Terrace Formation in Southeast Iceland: An Application of Lichenometric Dating Techniques. Boreas 15:231–246.Google Scholar
Thomson, John W. 1979 Lichens of the Alaskan Arctic Slope. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.Google Scholar
Thomson, John W. 1997 American Arctic Lichens, 2. The Microlichens. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Timdal, E., and Holtan-Hartwig, J. 1988 A Preliminary Key to Rhizocarpon in Scandinavia. Graphis Scripta 2:41–54.Google Scholar
Turner, Nancy J. 1997 Food Plants of Interior First Peoples. Royal British Columbia Museum Handbook. UBC Press, Vancouver.Google Scholar
Van Tilburg, Jo Anne 1990a Assessment of Damage to Easter Island Statues. Pacific Arts: The Journal of the Pacific Arts Association 1/2:26–29.Google Scholar
Van Tilburg, Jo Anne 1990b Respect for Rapa Nui: Exhibition and Conservation of Easter Island Stone Statues. Antiquity 64:249–258.Google Scholar
Washburn, Albert L. 1956 Classification of Patterned Ground and Review of Suggested Origins. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 67:823–865.Google Scholar
Webber, P. J., and Andrews, J. T. 1973 Lichenometry: A Commentary. Arctic and Alpine Research 5:295–302.Google Scholar
Werner, A. 1993 Holocene Moraine Chronology, Spitsbergen, Svalbard: Lichenometric Evidence for Multiple Neoglacial Advances in the Arctic. The Holocene 3:128–137.Google Scholar
Winchester, Vanessa 1988 An Assessment of Lichenometry as a Method for Dating Recent Stone Movements in Two Stone Circles in Cumbria and Oxfordshire. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 96:57–68.Google Scholar
Winchester, Vanessa, and Chaujar, Ravender K. 2002 Lichenometric Dating of Slope Movements, Nant Ffrancon, North Wales. Geomorphology 47:61–74.Google Scholar
Winchester, Vanessa, and Harrison, Stephan 1994 A Development of the Lichenometric Method Applied to the Dating of Glacially Influenced Debris Flows in Southern Chile. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 19:137–151.Google Scholar
Winchester, Vanessa, Harrison, Stephan, and Warren, Charles R. 2001 Recent Retreat Glaciar Nef, Chilean Patagonia, Dated by Lichenometry and Dendrochronology. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 33:266–273.Google Scholar
Winkler, Stefan, Matthews, John A., Shakesby, Richard A., and Quentin Dresser, P. 2003 Glacier Variations in Breheimen, Southern Norway: Dating Little Ice Age Moraine Sequences at Seven Low-Altitude Glaciers. Journal of Quaternary Science 18:395–413.Google Scholar
Worsley, Peter 1981 Lichenometry. In Geomorphological Techniques, edited by Andrew Goudie, pp. 302–305. George Allen and Unwin, London.Google Scholar