Warning: file_put_contents(/opt/frankenphp/design.onmedianet.com/storage/proxy/cache/7128de30cbd920e150fef83318269b87.html): Failed to open stream: No space left on device in /opt/frankenphp/design.onmedianet.com/app/src/Arsae/CacheManager.php on line 36

Warning: http_response_code(): Cannot set response code - headers already sent (output started at /opt/frankenphp/design.onmedianet.com/app/src/Arsae/CacheManager.php:36) in /opt/frankenphp/design.onmedianet.com/app/src/Models/Response.php on line 17

Warning: Cannot modify header information - headers already sent by (output started at /opt/frankenphp/design.onmedianet.com/app/src/Arsae/CacheManager.php:36) in /opt/frankenphp/design.onmedianet.com/app/src/Models/Response.php on line 20
Synthesis of the Elements in Stars | Rev. Mod. Phys.
- Physical Review Journals
All JournalsPhysics Magazine
All JournalsPhysics Magazine

Reviews of Modern Physics

  • Free to Read

Synthesis of the Elements in Stars

E. Margaret Burbidge, G. R. Burbidge, William A. Fowler, and F. Hoyle

E. Margaret Burbidge, G. R. Burbidge, William A. Fowler, and F. Hoyle

  • Kellogg Radiation Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, and Mount Wilson and Palomar Observatories, Carnegie Institution of Washington, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
PDF

Rev. Mod. Phys. 29, 547 – Published 1 October, 1957

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547

References (244)

  1. R. L. Adgie and J. S. Hey, Nature 179, 370 (1950)
  2. F. Ajzenberg and T. Lauritsen, Revs. Modern Phys. 27, 136 (1955)
  3. Alder, Stech, and Winther, Phys. Rev. 107, 728 (1957)
  4. L. H. Aller, Astrophys. J. 97, 135 (1943)
  5. L. H. Aller and P. C. Keenan, Astrophys. J. 113, 72 (1951)
  6. L. H. Aller, Mem. soc. roy. sci. Liège 14, 337 (1954)
  7. L. H. Aller, Gaseous Nebulae (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1956), p. 217
  8. L. H. Aller, Preprint for Handbuch der Physik (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1957)
  9. L. H. Aller and J. L. Greenstein (private communication)
  10. Aller, Elste, and Jugaku, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 3, 1 (1957)
  11. L. H. Aller, Astrophys. J. 125, 84 (1957)
  12. R. A. Alpher and R. C. Herman, Revs. Modern Phys. 22, 153 (1950)
  13. R. A. Alpher and R. C. Herman, Ann. Rev. Nuclear Sci. 2, 1 (1953)
  14. Arp, Baum, and Sandage, Astron. J. 58, 4 (1953)
  15. M. Awschalom, Phys. Rev. 101, 1041 (1956)
  16. W. Baade, Astrophys. J. 97, 119 (1943)
  17. W. Baade, Astrophys. J. 102, 309 (1945)
  18. Baade, Burbidge, Hoyle, Burbidge, Christy, and Fowler, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 68, 296 (1956)
  19. W. Baade (private communication)
  20. H. W. Babcock, Proceedings of the Stockholm Symposium on Electromagnetic Phenomena in Cosmical Physics (to be published)
  21. C. L. Bailey and W. R. Stratton, Phys. Rev. 77, 194 (1950)
  22. L. Berman, Astrophys. J. 81, 369 (1935)
  23. H. A. Bethe, Phys. Rev. 55, 103, 434 (1939)
  24. W. P. Bidelman, Astrophys. J. 111, 333 (1950)
  25. W. P. Bidelman and P. C. Keenan, Astrophys. J. 114, 473 (1951)
  26. W. P. Bidelman, Astrophys. J. 116, 227 (1952)
  27. W. P. Bidelman, Astrophys. J. 117, 25 (1953)
  28. W. P. Bidelman, Astrophys. J. 117, 377 (1953)
  29. W. P. Bidelman, Mem. soc. roy. sci. Liège 14, 402 (1954)
  30. W. P. Bidelman, Vistas in Astronomy, edited by A. Beer (Pergamon Press, London, 1957), Vol. II, p. 1428
  31. J. M. Blatt and V. F. Weisskopf, Theoretical Nuclear Physics (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1952), p. 390
  32. N. Bohr and J. A. Wheeler, Phys. Rev. 56, 426 (1939)
  33. A. Bohr and B. R. Mottelson, Kgl. Danske Videnskab. Selskab, Mat.-fys. Medd. 27, No. 16 (1953)
  34. H. Bondi and T. Gold, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 108, 252 (1948)
  35. Booth, Ball, and MacGregor, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. Ser. II, 2, 268 (1957)
  36. Bosman-Crespin, Fowler, and Humblet, Bull. soc. sci. Liège 9, 327 (1954)
  37. R. Bouigue, Ann. astrophys. 17, 104 (1954)
  38. British Association Mathematical Tables, Vol. VI
  39. British Association Mathematical Tables, Vol. X
  40. H. Brown, Revs. Modern Phys. 21, 625 (1949)
  41. Bromley, Almqvist, Gove, Litherland, Paul, and Ferguson, Phys. Rev. 105, 957 (1957)
  42. W. Buscombe, Astrophys. J. 118, 459 (1953)
  43. W. Buscombe and P. W. Merrill, Astrophys. J. 116, 525 (1952)
  44. G. R. Burbidge and E. M. Burbidge, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 66, 308 (1954)
  45. G. R. Burbidge and E. M. Burbidge, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 1, 431 (1955)
  46. E. M. Burbidge and G. R. Burbidge, Astrophys. J. 122, 396 (1955)
  47. Burbidge, Hoyle, Burbidge, Christy, and Fowler, Phys. Rev. 103, 1145 (1956)
  48. E. M. Burbidge and G. R. Burbidge, Astrophys. J. 124, 116 (1956)
  49. G. R. Burbidge and E. M. Burbidge, Astrophys. J. 124, 130 (1956)
  50. E. M. Burbidge and G. R. Burbidge, Astrophys. J. 124, 655 (1956)
  51. Burbidge, Burbidge, and Fowler, Proceedings of the Stockholm Symposium of Electromagnetic Phenomena in Cosmical Physics (to be published)
  52. E. M. Burbidge and G. R. Burbidge, Astrophys. J. 126, 357 (1957)
  53. G. R. Burbidge, Phys. Rev. 107, 269 (1957)
  54. A. G. W. Cameron, Phys. Rev. 93, 932 (1954)
  55. A. G. W. Cameron, Astrophys. J. 121, 144 (1955)
  56. J. W. Chamberlain and L. H. Aller, Astrophys. J. 114, 52 (1951)
  57. C. D. Coryell, Ann. Rev. Nuclear Sci. 2, 308 (1953)
  58. C. D. Coryell, Laboratory for Nuclear Studies, Annual Report (1956)
  59. Cowan, Reines, Harrison, Kruse, and McGuire, Science 124, 103 (1956)
  60. Cook, Fowler, Lauritsen, and Lauritsen, Phys. Rev. 107, 508 (1957)
  61. C. L. Cowan, Jr., and F. Reines, Phys. Rev. 107, 1609 (1957)
  62. J. Crawford, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 65, 210 (1953)
  63. R. H. Curtiss, Publs. Observatory Univ. Mich. 2, 182 (1916)
  64. R. Davis, Bull, Am. Phys. Soc. Ser. II, 1, 219 (1956)
  65. A. J. Deutsch, Astrophys. J. 123, 210 (1956)
  66. D. B. Duncan and J. E. Perry, Phys. Rev. 82, 809 (1951)
  67. O. J. Eggen, Astron. J. 60, 401 (1955)
  68. O. J. Eggen, Astron. J. 61, 360 (1956)
  69. O. J. Eggen, Astron. J. 62, 45 (1957)
  70. R. A. Farrell (private communication)
  71. Feshbach, Porter, and Weisskopf, Phys. Rev. 96, 448 (1954)
  72. Fields, Studier, Diamond, Mech, Inghram, Pyle, Stevens, Fried, Manning, Ghiorso, Thompson, Higgins, and Seaborg, Phys. Rev. 102, 180 (1956)
  73. Fowler, Hornyak, and Cohen (unpublished, 1947) W. E. Siri, Isotopic Tracers and Nuclear Radiations (McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1949), p. 11
  74. W. A. Fowler, Mem. soc. roy. sci. Liège 14, 88 (1954)
  75. Fowler, Burbidge, and Burbidge, Astrophys. J. 122, 271 (1955)
  76. Fowler, Burbidge, and Burbidge, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 2, 167 (1955)
  77. W. A. Fowler and J. L. Greenstein, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. 42, 173 (1956)
  78. Fowler, Cook, Lauritsen, Lauritsen, and Mozer, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. Ser. II, 1, 191 (1956)
  79. P. Fong, preprint (1956) Phys. Rev. (to be published)
  80. J. H. Fregeau and R. Hofstadter, Phys. Rev. 99, 1503 (1955)
  81. J. H. Fregeau, Phys. Rev. 104, 225 (1956)
  82. Y. Fujita, Japanese J. Astron. Geophys. 17, 17 (1939)
  83. Y. Fujita, Japanese J. Astron. Geophys. 18, 45 (1940)
  84. Y. Fujita, Japanese J. Astron. Geophys. 18, 177 (1941)
  85. Y. Fujita, Astrophys. J. 124, 155 (1956)
  86. G. Gamow and M. Schoenberg, Phys. Rev. 59, 539 (1941)
  87. G. Gamow Astrophys. J. 98, 500 (1943)
  88. A. Ghiorso, UCRL Report No. 2912, and Geneva conference report (1955)
  89. V. M. Goldschmidt, Skrifter Norske Videnskaps-Acad. Oslo. I. Mat.-Naturv. Kl. No. 4 (1937)
  90. Goldberg, Aller, and Müller, preprint (1957)
  91. Good, Kunz, and Moak, Phys. Rev. 94, 87 (1954)
  92. K. Gottstein, Phil. Mag. 45, 347 (1954)
  93. A. E. S. Green, Phys. Rev. 95, 1006 (1954)
  94. J. L. Greenstein, Astrophys. J. 91, 438 (1940)
  95. J. L. Greenstein and W. S. Adams, Astrophys. J. 106, 339 (1947)
  96. J. L. Greenstein and R. S. Richardson, Astrophys. J. 113, 536 (1951)
  97. J. L. Greenstein, Modern Physics for Engineers, editor L. Ridenour (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954), p. 267
  98. J. L. Greenstein, Mem. soc. roy. sci. Liège 14, 307 (1954)
  99. J. L. Greenstein and E. Tandberg-Hanssen, Astrophys. J. 119, 113 (1954)
  100. J. L. Greenstein, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 68, 501 (1956)
  101. J. L. Greenstein, Third Berkeley Symposium on Statistics (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1956), p. 11
  102. J. L. Greenstein, (private communication)
  103. J. L. Greenstein and P. C. Keenan (to be published)
  104. G. M. Griffiths and J. B. Warner, Proc. Phys. Soc. (London) A68, 781 (1955)
  105. G. A. Gurzadian, Dynamical Problems of Planetary Nebulae (Erivan, USSR, 1954)
  106. R. N. Hall and W. A. Fowler, Phys. Rev. 77, 197 (1950)
  107. C. Hayashi and M. Nishida, Progr. Theoret. Phys. 16, 613 (1956)
  108. Halbert, Handley, and Zucker, Phys. Rev. 104, 115 (1956)
  109. Hayakawa, Hayashi, Imoto, and Kikuchi, Progr. Theoret. Phys. 16, 507 (1956)
  110. C. B. Haselgrove and F. Hoyle, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 116, 527 (1956)
  111. Hagedorn, Mozer, Webb, Fowler, and Lauritsen, Phys. Rev. 105, 219 (1957)
  112. E. C. Halbert and J. B. French, Phys. Rev. 105, 1563 (1957)
  113. J. A. Harvey (private communication)
  114. A. Hemmendinger, Phys. Rev. 73, 806 (1948)
  115. A. Hemmendinger, Phys. Rev. 75, 1267 (1949)
  116. G. H. Herbig, Astrophys. J. 110, 143 (1949)
  117. Henyey, Lelevier, and Levée, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 67, 154 (1955)
  118. L. Heller, Astrophys. J. 126, 341 (1957)
  119. G. H. Herbig and K. Hunger (unpublished)
  120. F. Hoyle, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 106, 343 (1946)
  121. F. Hoyle, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 109, 365 (1949)
  122. F. Hoyle, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 1, 121 (1954)
  123. F. Hoyle and M. Schwarzschild, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 2, 1 (1955)
  124. Hoyle, Fowler, Burbidge, and Burbidge, Science 124, 611 (1956)
  125. F. Hoyle, Astrophys. J. 124, 482 (1956)
  126. R. Hofstadter, Revs. Modern Phys. 28, 214 (1956)
  127. H. Hurwitz and H. A. Bethe, Phys. Rev. 81, 898 (1951)
  128. J. R. Huizenga, Physica 21, 410 (1955)
  129. "Neutron cross sections," by D. J. Hughes and J. A. Harvey, Brookhaven National Laboratory (1955)
  130. H. C. van de Hulst, Verslag Gewone Vergader. Afdel. Natuvrk. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap. 65, No. 10, 157 (1956)
  131. Humason, Mayall, and Sandage, Astron. J. 61, 97 (1956)
  132. J. R. Huizenga and J. Wing, Phys. Rev. 102, 926 (1956)
  133. J. R. Huizenga and J. Diamond, Phys. Rev. 107, 1087 (1957)
  134. J. A. Humblet (unpublished)
  135. J. R. Huizenga and J. Wing, Phys. Rev. 106, 91 (1957)
  136. K. Hunger and G. E. Kron, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 69, 347 (1957)
  137. H. L. Johnson, Astrophys. J. 120, 325 (1954)
  138. H. L. Johnson and A. R. Sandage, Astrophys. J. 124 379 (1956)
  139. W. H. Johnson, Jr., and V. B. Bhanot, Phys. Rev. 107, 1669 (1957)
  140. Kaplon, Noon, and Racette, Phys. Rev. 96, 1408 (1954)
  141. R. W. Kavanagh, thesis, California Institute of Technology, and private communication
  142. P. C. Keenan and W. W. Morgan, Astrophys. J. 94, 501 (1941)
  143. P. C. Keenan, Astrophys. J. 96, 101 (1942)
  144. P. C. Keenan and G. Keller, Astrophys. J. 117, 241 (1953)
  145. P. C. Keenan and R. G. Teske, Astrophys. J. 124, 499 (1956)
  146. T. D. Kinman, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 116, 77 (1956)
  147. O. Klein, Arkiv Mat. Astron. Fysik 34A, No. 19 (1947) F. Beskow and L. Treffenberg, 34A, Nos. 13 and 17 (1947)
  148. O. Kofoed-Hansen and A. Winther, Kgl. Danske Videnskab. Selskab, Mat.-fys. Medd. 30, No. 20 (1956)
  149. W. A. S. Lamb and R. E. Hester, Phys. Rev. 107, 550 (1957)
  150. W. A. S. Lamb and R. E. Hester, Report No. UCRL/4903 (May, 1957)
  151. Lagar, Lyon, and Macklin, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. Ser. II, 2, 15 (1957) private communication
  152. T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang, Phys. Rev. 104, 254 (1956)
  153. N. U. Mayall and J. H. Oort, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 54, 95 (1942)
  154. M. G. Mayer and E. Teller, Phys. Rev. 76, 1226 (1949)
  155. J. B. Marion and W. A. Fowler, Astrophys. J. 125, 221 (1957)
  156. A. McKellar, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 52, 407 (1940)
  157. A. McKellar, Observatory 64, 4 (1941)
  158. A. McKellar and W. H. Stillwell, J. Roy. Astron. Soc. Canada 38, 237 (1944)
  159. A. McKellar Publs. Dominion Astrophys. Observatory, Victoria, B. C. 7, 395 (1948)
  160. P. W. Merrill, Astrophys. J. 105, 360 (1947)
  161. P. W. Merrill, Science 115, 484 (1952)
  162. P. W. Merrill and J. L. Greenstein, Astrophys. J. Suppl. 2, 225 (1956)
  163. P. W. Merrill, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 68, 70 (1956)

  164. Omitted endnote

  165. R. Minkowski, Publs. Observatory Univ. Mich. 10, 25 (1950)
  166. C. O. Muehlhause and S. Oleska, Phys. Rev. 105, 1332 (1957)
  167. G. Münch, Astrophys. J., in preparation
  168. Nakagawa, Ohmura, Takebe, and Obi, Progr. Theoret. Phys. 16, 389 (1956)
  169. S. G. Nilsson, Kgl. Danske Videnskab. Selskab, Mat.-fys. Medd. 29, No. 16 (1955)
  170. R. J. Northcott, J. Roy. Astron. Soc. Canada 47, 65 (1953)
  171. J. H. Noon and M. F. Kaplon, Phys. Rev. 97, 769 (1955)
  172. Noon, Herz, and O'Brien, Nature 179, 91 (1957)
  173. J. R. Oppenheimer and J. S. Schwinger, Phys. Rev. 56, 1066 (1939)
  174. E. J. Öpik, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. A54, 49 (1951)
  175. E. J. Öpik, Mem. soc. roy sci. Liège 14, 131 (1954)
  176. D. E. Osterbrock, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 69, 227 (1957)
  177. P. P. Parenago, Astron. Zhur. 27, 150 (1950)
  178. Patterson, Brown, Tilton, and Inghram, Phys. Rev. 92, 1234 (1953)
  179. C. C. Patterson, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 7, 151 (1955)
  180. Patterson, Brown, Tilton, and Inghram, Science 121, 69 (1955)
  181. R. E. Pixley (private communication)
  182. Pixley, Hester, and Lamb (private communication)
  183. D. M. Popper, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 59, 320 (1947)
  184. F. Reines and C. L. Cowan, Phys. Rev. 92, 830 (1953)
  185. Reynolds, Scott, and Zucker, Phys. Rev. 102, 237 (1956)
  186. N. G. Roman, Astrophys. J. 112, 554 (1950)
  187. N. G. Roman, Astrophys. J. 116, 122 (1952)
  188. B. Rossi (private communication)
  189. H. N. Russell, Astrophys. J. 70, 11 (1929)
  190. R. F. Sanford, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 52, 203 (1940)
  191. R. F. Sanford, Astrophys. J. 99, 145 (1944)
  192. E. E. Salpeter, Astrophys. J. 115, 326 (1952)
  193. E. E. Salpeter, Phys. Rev. 88, 547 (1952)
  194. E. E. Salpeter, Ann. Rev. Nuclear Sci. 2, 41 (1953)
  195. E. E. Salpeter, Australian J. Phys. 7, 373 (1954)
  196. E. E. Salpeter, Phys. Rev. 97, 1237 (1955)
  197. E. E. Salpeter, Astrophys. J. 121, 161 (1955)
  198. E. E. Salpeter, Phys. Rev. 107, 516 (1957)
  199. A. R. Sandage, Astrophys. J. 125, 435 (1957)
  200. A. R. Sandage (unpublished)
  201. M. Schmidt, Bull. Astron. Soc. Netherlands 13, 15 (1956)
  202. R. P. Schuman, unpublished
  203. M. Schwarzschild, Astron. J. 59, 273 (1954)
  204. Schwarzschild, Howard, and Härm, Astrophys. J. 125, 283 (1957)
  205. Schwarzschild, Schwarzschild, Searle, and Meltzer, Astrophys. J. 125, 123 (1957)
  206. T. Snyder et al., Geneva Conference Reports 5, 162 (1955)
  207. J. S. Smart, Phys. Rev. 74, 1882 (1948)
  208. J. S. Smart, Phys. Rev. 75, 1379 (1949)
  209. L. Spitzer, Astrophys. J. 109, 548 (1949)
  210. L. Spitzer and G. B. Field, Astrophys. J. 121, 300 (1955)
  211. E. J. Stanley and R. Price, Nature 177, 1221 (1956)
  212. O. Struve, Observatory 66, 208 (1946)
  213. O. Struve, Sky and Telescope 16, 262 (1957)
  214. O. Struve and S. S. Huang, Occ. Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 3, 161, No. 19 (1957)
  215. H. E. Suess and H. C. Urey, Revs. Modern Phys. 28, 53 (1956)
  216. C. P. Swann and E. R. Metzger, Bull. Am. Phys. Soc. 1, 211 (1956) Amsterdam Conference Proceedings (1956)
  217. P. Swings and J. W. Swensson, Ann. astrophys. 15, 290 (1952)
  218. N. Tanner, Phys. Rev. 107, 1203 (1957)
  219. N. Tanner and R. E. Pixley (private communication)
  220. R. G. Teske, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific 68, 520 (1956)
  221. R. G. Thomas, Phys. Rev. 88, 1109 (1952)
  222. A. D. Thackeray, Monthly Notices Roy. Astron. Soc. 114, 93 (1954)
  223. S. G. Thompson and A. Ghiorso (private communication)
  224. T'o-t'o Sung-Shih, History of the Sung Dynasty, Treatise on Astronomy, paragraph on guest-stars (Po-na edition), Chap. 56, p. 25a
  225. Tollestrup, Fowler, and Lauritsen, Phys. Rev. 76, 428 (1949)
  226. G. Traving, Z. Astrophys. 36, 1 (1955)
  227. G. Traving, Z. Astrophys. 41, 215 (1957)
  228. Turkevitch, Hamaguchi, and Read, Gordon Conference Report (1956)
  229. H. C. Urey, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. 42, 889 (1956)
  230. A. H. Wapstra, Physica 21, 367, 387 (1955)
  231. Way, King, McGinnis, and van Lieshout, Nuclear Level Schemes, National Academy of Sciences, Washington (1955)
  232. G. J. Wasserburg and R. J. Hayden, Nature 176, 130 (1955)
  233. C. F. von Weizsäcker, Z. Physik 96, 431 (1935)
  234. C. F. von Weizsäcker, Physik. Z. 39, 633 (1938)
  235. C. F. von Weizsäcker, Astrophys. J. 114, 165 (1951)
  236. J. Weneser, Phys. Rev. 105, 1335 (1957)
  237. V. F. Weisskopf, Revs. Modern Phys. 29, 174 (1957)
  238. J. A. Wheeler, Phys. Rev. 59, 27 (1941)
  239. F. B. Wood, Astrophys. J. 112, 196 (1950)
  240. Woodbury, Hall, and Fowler, Phys. Rev. 75, 1462 (1949)
  241. E. J. Woodbury and W. A. Fowler, Phys. Rev. 85, 51 (1952)
  242. K. Würm, Naturwissenschaften 29, 686 (1941)
  243. Wu, Ambler, Hudson, Hoppes, and Hayward, Phys. Rev. 105, 1413 (1957)
  244. Yale Parallax Catalogue (Yale University Observatory, 1952), third edition

Outline

Information

Rev. Mod. Phys. 29, 547– Published 1 October, 1957

    © 1957 American Physical Society

    Sign In to Your Journals Account

    Filter

    Filter

    Article Lookup

    Enter a citation