Achieving Equity in Special Education: History, Status, and Current Challenges
Abstract
Among the most-longstanding and intransigent issues in the field, the disproportionate representation of minority students in special education programs has its roots in a long history of educational segregation and discrimination. Although national estimates of disproportionality have been consistent over time, state and local estimates may show varying patterns of disproportionality. A number of factors may contribute to disproportionality, including test bias, poverty, special education processes, inequity in general education, issues of behavior management, and cultural mismatch/cultural reproduction. This article provides a report on the history, measurement, status, and factors contributing to disproportionate representation in special education, and offers recommendations based on an understanding of racial and ethnic disparities in special education as a multiply determined phenomenon.
Get full access to this article
View all access and purchase options for this article.
References
Abedi J. (2004). The No Child Left Behind Act and English language learners: Assessment and accountability issues. Educational Researcher, 33(1), 4–14.
Ainsworth J. W. (2002). Why does it take a village? The meditation of neighborhood effects on educational achievement. Social Forces, 81(1), 117–152.
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, 396 U.S. 1218 (1969).
Artiles A. J. (2003). Special education's changing identity: Paradoxes and dilemmas in views of culture and space. Harvard Educational Review, 73, 164–202.
Artiles A. J., Rueda R., Salazar J. J., Higareda I. (2002). English language learner representation in special education in California urban school districts. In Losen D. J., Orfield G. (Eds.), Racial inequity in special education (pp. 117–135) Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Publishing Group.
Artiles A. J., Trent S. C. (1994). Overrepresentation of minority students in special education: A continuing debate. The Journal of Special Education, 27(4), 410–437.
Bahr M., Fuchs D., Stecker P., Fuchs L. (1991). Are teachers' perceptions of difficult-to-teach students racially biased?. School Psychology Review, 20(4), 599–608.
Barrera M. (2006). Roles of definitional and assessment models in the identification of New or Second Language Learners of English for special education. Journal of Learning Disability, 39, 142–156.
Barnett W. S. (1995). Long term effects of early childhood programs on cognitive and school outcomes. The Future of Children, 5(3), 25–50.
Barton P. E. (2003). Parsing the achievement gap: Baselines for tracking progress. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Bersoff D. N. (1981). Testing and the law. American Psychologist, 36, 1047–1055.
Blanchett W. J., Mumford V., Beachum F. (2005). Urban school failure and disproportionality in a post-Brown era: Benign neglect of the Constitutional rights of students of color. Remedial and Special Education, 26(2), 70–81.
Blaustein A. P., Zangrando R. L. (Eds.). (1968). Civil rights and the Black American: A documentary history. New York: Clarion Books.
Bowles S., Gintis H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist America. New York: Basic Books.
Brooks-Gunn J., Duncan G. J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. The Future of Children, 7(2), 55–71.
Brown R. T., Reynolds C. R., Whitaker J. S. (1999). Bias in mental testing since Bias in Mental Testing. School Psychology Quarterly, 14, 208–238.
Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
Caldas S. J., Bankston C. L. (1999). Multilevel examination of student, school, and district-level effects on academic performance. Journal of Educational Research, 93(2), 91–100.
Cartledge G., Kourea L. (2008). Culturally responsive classrooms for culturally diverse students with and at risk for disabilities. Exceptional Children, 74, 351–371.
Children's Defense Fund. (1975). School suspensions: Are they helping children? Cambridge, MA: Washington Research Project.
Chinn P. C., Hughes S. (1987). Representation of minority students in special education classes. Remedial and Special Education, 8, 41–46.
Cole N. S. (1981). Bias in testing. American Psychologist, 36, 1067–1077.
Coutinho M. J., Oswald D. P. (2000). Disproportionate representation in special education: A synthesis and recommendations. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 9(2), 135–156.
Coutinho M. J., Oswald D. P. (2004). Disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education: Measuring the problem. Practitioner Brief Series: National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems.
Coutinho M. J., Oswald D. P., Best A. M. (2002). The influence of sociodemographics on the disproportionate identification of minority students as having learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 49–59.
Darling-Hammond L. (2004). Inequity and the right to learn: Access to qualified teachers in California's public schools. Teachers College Record, 106(10), 1936–1966.
Davies H., Crombie I., Tavakoli M. (1998). When can odds ratios mislead?. British Medical Journal, 316, 989–991.
Delgado R., Stefancic J. (2002). Critical race theory: The cutting edge (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Delpit L. D. (1995). Other people's children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: New Press.
Diana v. California State Board of Education, No. C-70, RFT, (N.D. Cal. 1970).
Donovan M. S., Cross C. T. (Eds.). (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Dunn L. M. (1968). Special education for the mildly retarded—is much of it justifiable?. Exceptional Children, 23, 5–21.
Ferguson A. A. (2001). Bad boys: Public schools and the making of Black masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Ferri B. A., Connor D. J. (2005). In the shadow of Brown: Special education and overrepresentation of students of color. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 93–100.
Fierros E. G., Conroy J. W. (2002). Double jeopardy: An exploration of restrictiveness and race in special education. In Losen D. J., Orfield G. (Eds.), Racial inequity in special education (pp. 39–70). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Finn J. D. (1982). Patterns in special education placement as revealed by the OCR survey. In Heller K. A., Holtzman W. H., Messick S. (Eds.), Placing children in special education: A strategy for equity (pp. 322–381). Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences National Academy Press.
Ford D. Y., Grantham T. C., Whiting G. W. (2008). Culturally and linguistically diverse students in gifted education: Recruitment and retention issues. Exceptional Children, 74, 289–306.
Freedle R. O. (2003). Correcting the SAT's ethnic and social-class bias: A method for reestimating SAT scores. Harvard Educational Review, 73(1), 1–43.
Fuchs D., Fuchs L. S. (1986). Test procedure bias: A meta analysis of examiner familiarity effects. Review of Educational Research, 56, 243–262.
Fuchs D., Fuchs L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it?. Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99.
Gottlieb J., Gottlieb B. W., Trongone S. (1991). Parent and teacher referrals for a psychoeducational evaluation. Journal of Special Education, 25(2), 155–167.
Gottlieb J. M., Alter M., Gottlieb B. W., Wishner J. (1994). Special education in urban America: It's not justifiable for many. Journal of Special Education, 27, 453–465.
Gravois T. A., Rosenfield S. A. (2006). Impact of instructional consultation teams on the disproportionate referral and placement of minority students in special education. Remedial and Special Education, 27(1), 42–52.
Greenwood C. R., Hart B., Walker D., Risley T. R. (1994). The opportunity to respond revisited: A behavioral theory of developmental retardation and its prevention. In Gardner R. III, et al. (Eds.), Behavior analysis in education: Focus on measurably superior instruction (pp. 213–223). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Gregory J. F. (1997). Three strikes and they're out: African American boys and American schools' responses to misbehavior. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 7(1), 25–34.
Guadalupe Organization v. Temple Elementary School District #3, No. 71–435 (D. Ariz, 1972).
Harmer H. (Ed.). (2001). The Longman companion to slavery, emancipation, and civil rights. Harlow, UK: Longman.
Harrington G. M. (1975). Intelligence tests may favour the majority groups in a population. Nature, 258, 708–709.
Harry B. (1994). The disproportionate representation of minority students in special education: Theories and recommendations. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State Directors of Special Education.
Harry B. (2008) Collaboration with culturally and linguistically diverse families: Ideal versus reality. Exceptional Children, 74, 372–388.
Harry B., Klingner J. (2006). Why are so many minority students in special education? Understanding race and disability in schools. New York: Teachers College Press.
Harry B., Klingner J., Sturges K. M., Moore R. F. (2002). Of rocks and soft places: Using qualitative methods to investigate disproportionality. In Losen D. J., Orfield G. (Eds.), Racial inequity in special education (pp. 71–92). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Harry B., Klingner J. K., Hart J. (2005). African American families under fire: Ethnographic views of family strengths. Remedial and Special Education, 26, 101–112.
Heller K. A., Holtzman W. H., Messick S. (Eds.). (1982). Placing children in special education: A strategy for equity. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Herrnstein R. J., Murray C. (1994). The bell curve: Intelligence and class structure in American life. New York: Free Press.
Hickman J. A., Reynolds C. R. (1987). Are race differences in mental test scores an artifact of psychometric methods?: A test of Harrington's experimental model. Journal of Special Education, 20, 409–430.
Hobson v. Hansen, 269 F. Supp. 401 (D.C. Cir. 1967).
Hodgkinson H. L. (1995). What should we call people? Race, class, and the census for 2000. Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 173–179.
Holzman M. (2004). Public education and Black male students: A state report card. Cambridge, MA: The Schott Foundation for Public Education.
Hosp J. L., Reschly D. J. (2003). Referral rates for intervention and assessment: A meta-analysis of racial differences. Journal of Special Education, 37, 67–81.
Hosp J. L., Reschly D. J. (2004). Disproportionate representation of minority students in special education: Academic, demographic, and economic predictors. Exceptional Children, 70, 185–199.
Huebner E. S. (1985). The influence of rural, suburban, and urban student background and school setting upon psychoeducational decisions. School Psychology Review, 14(2), 239–241.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 20 U.S.C. §§ 1401 et seq.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997, Pub L. No. 105–17, 105th Cong., 1st sess.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act Regulations, 34 C.F.R. 300.1 et seq.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108–446 (2004).
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 118 Stat. 2739.
Jackson J. P., Weidman N. M. (2006). Race, racism, and science: Social impact and interaction. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Jencks C., Phillips M. (Eds.). (1998). The Black—White test score gap. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Jensen A. R. (1980). Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press.
Johnson R. S. (2002). Using data to close the achievement gap: How to measure equity in our schools. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Joseph L. M., Ford D. Y. (2006). Nondiscriminatory assessment: Considerations for gifted education. Gifted Child Quarterly, 50(1), 42–51.
Katznelson I. (2005). When affirmative action was White: An untold history of racial inequality in twentieth century America. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
Kidder W. C., Rosner J. (2002) How the SAT creates “built-in headwinds”: An educational and legal analysis of disparate impact. Santa Clara Law Review, 43(1), 131–211.
King J. E. (1991). Dysconscious racism: Ideology, identity, and the miseducation of teachers. Journal of Negro Education, 60(2), 133–146.
King J. E. (Ed.). (2005). Black education: A transformative research and action agenda for the new century. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates for the American Educational Research Association.
Klingner J. K., Artiles A. J., Kozleski E., Harry B., Zion S., Tate W., et al. (2005). Addressing the disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in special education through culturally responsive educational systems. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 13(38), 1–39.
Klingner J. K., Artiles A. J., Barletta Mendez L. (2006). English Language Learners who struggle with reading: Language acquisition or LD?. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39, 108–128.
Kozol J. (1991). Savage inequalities. New York: Crown.
Kozol J. (2005). The shame of the nation: The restoration of apartheid schooling in America. New York: Crown.
Kramer R. A., Allen L., Gergen P. J. (1995). Health and social characteristics and children's cognitive functioning: Results from a national cohort. American Journal of Public Health, 85(3), 312–318.
Ladner M., Hammons C. (2001). Special but unequal: Race and special education. In Finn C. E. Jr., Rotherham A. J., Hokanson C. R. Jr. (Eds.), Rethinking special education for a new century (pp. 85–110). Washington, DC: The Progressive Policy Institute & The Thomas B. Fordham Foundation.
Ladson-Billings G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Ladson-Billings G. (1995). But that's just good teaching! The case for culturally relevant pedagogy. Theory into Practice, 34(3), 159–165.
Ladson-Billings G., Tate W. (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. The Teachers College Record, 97(1), 47–68.
Larry P. v. Riles, 343F. Supp. 1306 (N.D. Cal. 1972), aff'd 502 F. 2d 963 (9th Cir. 1974); 495 F. Supp. 926 (N.D. Cal. 1979), aff'd 793 F. 2d 969 (9th Cir. 1984).
Losen D. J., Orfield G. (2002). Racial inequity in special education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
Losen D. J., Welner K. G. (2001). Disabling discrimination in our public schools: Comprehensive legal challenges to inappropriate and inadequate special education services for minority children. Harvard Civil Rights—Civil Liberties Law Review, 36(2), 407–460.
Lowery C. D., Marszalek J. F. (1992). Encyclopedia of African American civil rights: From emancipation to the present. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
MacMillan D. L., Lopez M. F. (1996). Comparison of students nominated for prereferral interventions by ethnicity and gender. Journal of Special Education, 30(2), 133–152.
MacMillan D. L., Reschly D. J. (1998). Overrepresentation of minority students: The case for greater specificity or reconsideration of the variables examined. Journal of Special Education, 32, 15–24.
Madaus G. F., Clarke M. (2001). The adverse impact of high stakes testing on minority students: Evidence from 100 years of test data. In Orfield G., Kornhaber M. (Eds.), Raising standards or raising barriers: Inequality and high stakes testing in public education (pp. 85–106). New York: The Century Foundation.
McLeskey J., Henry D., Axelrod M. I. (1999). Inclusion of students with learning disabilities: An examination of data from reports to congress. Exceptional Children, 66, 55–66.
McLloyd V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185–204.
Mehan H. (1992). Understanding inequity in schools: The contribution of interpretive studies. Sociology of Education, 65, 1–20.
Mehan H., Hertweck A., Meihls J. L. (1986). Handicapping the handicapped: Decision making in students' educational careers. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Mercer J. (1973). Labeling the mentally retarded. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia, 384 F. Supp. 866 (1972).
National Alliance of Black School Educators. (2002). Addressing over-representation of African American students in special education: The prereferral intervention process. Washington, DC: National Alliance of Black School Educators.
National Association of Secondary School Principals. (2000, February). Statement on civil rights implications of zero tolerance programs. Testimony presented to the United States Commission on Civil Rights, Washington, D.C.
National Center on Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt). (2006). Disproportionality by race and disability 2003–2004 [Data file]. Retrieved February 23, 2006, from National Center on Culturally Responsive Educational Systems Web site: http://nccrest.eddata.net/data/index.php?id=47&f1=2003–2004&f2=Hispanic.
Oakes J. (1982). The reproduction of inequity: The content of secondary school tracking. The Urban Review, 14, 107–120.
Oakes J., Ormseth T., Bell R., Camp P. (1990). Multiplying inequalities: The effects of race, social class, and tracking on opportunities to learn mathematics and science. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.
Orfield G., Eaton S. E. (1996). Dismantling desegregation: The quiet reversal of Brown v. Board of Education. New York: New Press.
Ortiz A. A. (1997). Learning disabilities occurring concomitantly with linguistic differences. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 321–332.
Oswald D., Coutinho M. J., Best A. M. (2002). Community and school predictors of overrepresentation of minority children in special education. In Losen D. J., Orfield G. (Eds.), Racial inequity in special education (pp. 1–13). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Civil Rights Project.
Oswald D. P., Coutinho M. J., Best A. M., Nguyen N. (2001). Impact of sociodemographic characteristics on the identification rates of minority students as having mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 39(5), 351–367.
Oswald D. P., Coutinho M. J., Best A. M., Singh N. N. (1999). Ethnic representation in special education: The influence of school related economic and demographic variables. The Journal of Special Education, 32, 194–206.
Parrish T. (2002). Racial disparities in the identification, funding, and provision of special education. In Losen D. J., Orfield G. (Eds.), Racial inequity in special education (pp. 15–37). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
PASE (Parents in Action on Special Education v. Hannon, 506 F. Supp. 831 (D.N.D.I. 1980).
Patton J. M. (1998). The disproportionate representation of African Americans in special education: Looking behind the curtain for understanding and solutions. The Journal of Special Education, 32(1), 25–31.
Peske H. G., Haycock K. (2006). Teaching inequity: How poor and minority students are shortchanged on teacher quality. Washington, DC: Education Trust.
Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
Prieto A. G., Zucker S. H. (1981). Teacher perception of race as a factor in the placement of behaviorally disordered children. Behavioral Disorders, 7, 34–38.
Mendez Raffaele L. M., Knoff H. M. (2003). Who gets suspended from school and why: A demographic analysis of schools and disciplinary infractions in a large school district. Education and Treatment of Children, 26, 30–51.
Rausch M. K., Skiba R. J. (2006). Examining patterns of disciplinary disproportionality by disability status and racial group. Bloomington, IN: Center for Evaluation & Education Policy.
Rebell M. A. (1999). Fiscal equity litigation and the democratic imperative. Equity and Excellence in Education, 32, 5–18.
Reschly D. J. (1996). Disproportionate minority representation in general and special education programs: Patterns, issues, and alternatives. Des Moines: Iowa Department of Education Bureau of Special Education.
Reynolds C. R. (2000). Why is psychometric research on bias in mental testing so often ignored?. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 6, 144–150.
Ritter M. K., Skiba R. J. (2006). Local equity action development (LEAD). (Education Policy Brief Vol. 4, No. 9). Bloomington, IN: Center for Evaluation & Education Policy.
Rury J. L. (2002). Education and social change: Themes in the history of American schooling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Salend S. J., Duhaney Garrick L. M., Montgomery W. (2002). A comprehensive approach to identifying and addressing issues of disproportionate representation. Remedial and Special Education, 23(5), 289–299.
Serna L. A., Forness S. R., Nielsen M. E. (1998). Intervention versus affirmation: Proposed solutions to the problem of disproportionate minority representation in special education. Journal of Special Education, 32(1) 48–51.
Serwatka T. S., Deering S., Grant P. (1995). Disproportionate representation of African Americans in emotionally handicapped classes. Journal of Black Studies, 25, 492–506.
Shaw S. R., Braden J. P. (1990). Race and gender bias in the administration of corporal punishment. School Psychology Review, 19, 378–383.
Sheets R. H. (2005). Diversity pedagogy: Examining the role of culture in the teaching-learning process. Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.
Shepard L. A. (1987). The case for bias in tests of achievement and scholastic aptitude. In Modgil S., Modgil C. (Eds.), Arthur Jensen: Consensus and controversy (pp. 177–190). New York: Falmer Press.
Shinn M. R., Tindal G. A., Spira D. A. (1987). Special education referrals as an index of teacher tolerance: Are teachers imperfect tests?. Exceptional Children, 54, 32–40.
Skiba R. J., Bush L. D., Knesting K. K. (2002). Culturally competent assessment: More than nonbiased tests. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 11(1), 61–78.
Skiba R. J., Michael R. S., Nardo A. C., Peterson R. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. Urban Review, 34, 317–342.
Skiba R. J., Poloni-Staudinger L., Gallini S., Simmons A. B., Feggins-Azziz L. R. (2006b). Disparate access: The disproportionality of African American students with disabilities across educational environments. Exceptional Children, 72, 411–424.
Skiba R. J., Poloni-Staudinger L., Simmons A. B., Feggins L. R., Chung C. G. (2005). Unproven links: Can poverty explain ethnic disproportionality in special education?. The Journal of Special Education, 39(3), 130–144.
Skiba R. J., Rausch M. K. (2006). Zero tolerance, suspension, and expulsion: Questions of equity and effectiveness. In Evertson C. M., Weinstein C. S. (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 1063–1089). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Skiba R. J., Simmons A., Ritter S., Kohler K., Henderson M., Wu T. (2006a). The context of minority disproportionality: Practitioner perspectives on special education referral. Teachers College Record, 108(7), 1424–1459.
Sleeter C. E., Grant C. A. (1991). Race, class, gender and disability in current textbooks. In Apple M. W., Christian-Smith L. K. (Eds.), The politics of the textbook (pp. 78–110). New York: Routledge & Chapman-Hall.
Smedley A. (2007). Race in North America: Origin and evolution of a worldview (3rd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Smith A., Kozleski E. B. (2005). Witnessing Brown: Pursuit of an equity agenda in American education. Remedial and Special Education, 26(5), 270–280.
Sugai G., Lewis-Palmer T., Hagan-Burke S. (2000). Overview of the functional behavioral assessment process. Exceptionality, 8(3), 149–160.
Terman L. M. (1916). The measurement of intelligence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Tobias S., Cole C., Zibrin M., Bodlakova V. (1982). Teacher—student ethnicity and recommendations for special education referrals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(1), 72–76.
Tobias S., Zibrin M., Menell C. (1983). Special education referrals: Failure to replicate student-teacher ethnicity interaction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 705–707.
Tomlinson J. R., Acker N., Canter A., Lindborg S. (1978). Minority status, sex, and school psychological services. Psychology in the Schools, 14(4), 456–460.
Townsend B. L. (2000). The disproportionate discipline of African American learners: Reducing school suspensions and expulsions. Exceptional Children, 66, 381–391.
Trent S. C., Kea C. D., Oh K., (2008). Preparing preservice educators for cultural diversity: How far have we come?. Exceptional Children, 74, 328–350.
Trepagnier B. (2006). Silent racism: How well-meaning White people perpetuate the racial divide. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Poverty in the United States: 2002 (Series P60–222). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). (2002). 24th Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). (2006). 26th annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004. Washington, DC: Westat.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). Disproportionality and Overidentification [Policy Brief]. Retrieved February 27, 2007 from http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/%2Croot%2Cdynamic%2CTopicalBrief%2C7%2C.
Valencia R. R., Suzuki L. A. (2000). Intelligence testing and minority students: Foundations, performance factors, and assessment issues. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Wang M. C., Haertel G. D., Walberg H. J. (1997). Learning influences. In Walberg H. J., Haertel G. D. (Eds.), Psychology and educational practice (pp. 199–211). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
Westat. (2003). Special populations study final report. Washington, DC: United States Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs.
Westat. (2004). Summary of task force meeting on racial/ethnic disproportionality in special education. Washington, DC: Author.
Westat. (2005). Methods for assessing racial/ethnic disproportionality in special education: A technical assistance guide. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from https://www.ideadata.org/docs/Disproportionality%20Technical%20Assistance%20Guide.pdf.
Williams P. (2007). Disproportionality and overrepresentation. Building the legacy: Training curriculum on IDEA 2004 (Module 5 in the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY). Washington, DC: NICHCY. Retrieved July 20, 2007, from http://www.nichcy.org/training/contents.asp#toc.
Wright P., Cruz Santa R. (1983). Ethnic composition of special education programs in California. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 387–394.
Wu S. C., Pink W. T., Crain R. L., Moles O. (1982). Student suspension: A critical reappraisal. The Urban Review, 14, 245–303.
Ysseldyke J. E., Algozzine B., Richey L., Graden J. (1982). Declaring students eligible for learning disability services: Why bother with the data?. Learning Disability Quarterly, 5, 37–44.
Zhang D., Katsiyannis A. (2002). Minority representation in special education: A persistent challenge. Remedial and Special Education, 23, 180–187.
Cite
Cite
Cite
OR
Download to reference manager
If you have citation software installed, you can download citation data to the citation manager of your choice
Information, rights and permissions
Information
Published In
Article first published online: April 1, 2008
Issue published: April 2008
Authors
Metrics and citations
Metrics
Publication usage*
Total views and downloads: 9058
*Publication usage tracking started in December 2016
Altmetric
See the impact this article is making through the number of times it’s been read, and the Altmetric Score.
Learn more about the Altmetric Scores
Publications citing this one
Receive email alerts when this publication is cited
Web of Science: 299 view articles Opens in new tab
Crossref: 331
- Handbook for Educating Students with Disabilities
- Should a Genomic Diagnosis be a Ticket or a Roadmap? Threats to Equity in the Pursuit of Developmental Services in Early Childhood
- Overlooked and underserved: How inclusive education oversights exclude Black students
- Activism as Resistance: The Uprising of Black Youth With Stuttering Disabilities
- Developing Teacher Cultural Consciousness
- Mitigando la dualidad de la discapacidad. Herramientas histórico-culturales críticas para desestabilizar paradojas de equidadTaming the duality of disability. Critical cultural-historical tools to disrupt equity paradoxes
- Transdisciplinary inclusivity: strategies and implications for integrating students with disabilities in educational psychology research
- Handbook of Anti-Discriminatory Education
- Handbook for Educating Students with Disabilities
- Socioeconomic disparities in special education provision
- View More
Figures and tables
Figures & Media
Tables
View Options
Access options
If you have access to journal content via a personal subscription, university, library, employer or society, select from the options below:
I am signed in as:
View my profileSign out
I can access personal subscriptions, purchases, paired institutional access and free tools such as favourite journals, email alerts and saved searches.
loading institutional access options
CEC members can access this journal content using society membership credentials.
CEC members can access this journal content using society membership credentials.
Alternatively, view purchase options below:
Purchase 24 hour online access to view and download content.
Access journal content via a DeepDyve subscription or find out more about this option.
