What is an emporion and what role did emporia play in Mediterranean archaic trade?

Historia, 2011

WHAT IS AN EMPORION? A REASSESSMENT * Studies on ancient polities, in general, and Greek poleis and ethne, in particular, continue to be at the forefront of research in ancient Greek history as can be evidenced by the prolifi c work of the Copenhagen Polis Centre. One ancient Greek type of settlement, however, remains understudied, and is thus largely obscure to scholars. I refer to emporia, usually translated in English as commercial settlements, trading posts, or ports-of-trade, which have been examined only in terms of their economic function and political nature. One problem, which might also explain why studies on this type of settlement have not been common, is that ancient authors are not forthcoming in the information they give about emporia. In turn, this has resulted in few excavations of settlements ancient sources called emporia. Nonetheless, recent archaeological surveys carried out to investigate settlement patterns and urbanization, mostly neglected by scholars working on emporia, do provide information relevant to this type of settlement. To ignore certain kinds of evidence, especially when it is becoming increasingly available, is to miss the opportunity to understand as comprehensively as possible the phenomenon of emporia. With this intention in mind, I propose fi rst to review the limited historiography on emporia in order to reveal the interpretive gridlock that has persisted in scholarship. Then, I provide further evidence that bears on the discussion of what an emporion was and what the ancients understood by this term. Finally, I propose new avenues of research that move beyond examinations of the ancient economy and the political nature of emporia and treat instead their social context.

Two significant developments during the later Mediterranean Iron Age (roughly eighth to sixth centuries BCE) are the proliferation of long-distance trade networks and the growth of urban settlements around the Mediterranean. In the paper I argue two main points: 1) that overseas communities geared largely (but not solely) towards trade were vital in facilitating and intensifying commercial and social relations between culturally diverse societies and 2) that common religious identifications within these settlements formed fundamental institutional structures to mediate transactions between foreigners. I thus examine, first of all, some recent scholarship surrounding the concept of the emporion in the ancient world, particularly in terms of its social and urban functions. I then turn to a specific case study involving the cultic activity unearthed at an emporion on the Tiber River in Italy dating to the sixth century BCE, on the site of what would later be known as the Forum Boarium, or cattle market, of Rome. The religious identities as illustrated through the archaeology and literature surrounding gods such as Herakles, Mater Matuta, and Fortuna were crucial in reaching across cultural boundaries, and speak to the diverse groups of people engaging in social and economic transactions within this emporion. I end with a consideration of how both a theory of institutions and comparative evidence from later periods can help us divulge the explanatory power of these cults in terms of the larger processes of urbanization and economic growth in the ancient world. Keywords: emporion, religion, sanctuaries, syncretism, cross-cultural interaction, institutions, long-distance trade, economy, Iron Age

K. Lomas (ed.), The World of the Western Greeks, Routledge, 2025

This volume presents studies by international experts on aspects of the society, economy, religion, culture, and history of the Greek settlements of the ancient western Mediterranean, one of the most innovative areas of the ancient Greek world. Across 43 chapters, this book synthesizes material evidence, integrates this with ancient sources, and introduces key methodological debates on the nature and study of Greek settlement in the west. It provides an overview of the history of the region, from earliest contact with the Greek world to the Roman period, and examines the relationships between Greek and non-Greek populations of the western Mediterranean and how they shaped each other's histories and cultures. The volume also explores aspects of the economy, society, and culture of the region, illustrating the contribution of the western Greeks to shaping wider Greek culture and identity. By adopting a wide-ranging approach, integrating material evidence and ancient sources, it illuminates the diversity and innovative nature of the western Greek world from its earliest development to the aftermath of the Roman conquest. The World of the Western Greeks is an essential reference work for students and scholars of the Greek western Mediterranean and its history, culture, and society.

Trade in the Ancient Mediterranean: Private Order and Public Institutions, 2019

From around 700 BCE until the first centuries CE, the Mediterranean enjoyed steady economic growth through trade, reaching a level not to be regained until the early modern era. This process of growth coincided with a process of state formation, culminating in the largest state the ancient Mediterranean would ever know, the Roman Empire. Subsequent economic decline coincided with state disintegration. How are the two processes related? In Trade in the Ancient Mediterranean, Taco Terpstra investigates how the organizational structure of trade benefited from state institutions. Although enforcement typically depended on private actors, traders could utilize a public infrastructure, which included not only courts and legal frameworks but also socially cohesive ideologies. Terpstra details how business practices emerged that were based on private order, yet took advantage of public institutions. Focusing on the activity of both private and public economic actors—from Greek city councilors and Ptolemaic officials to long-distance traders and Roman magistrates and financiers—Terpstra illuminates the complex relationship between economic development and state structures in the ancient Mediterranean.

Levantine Connectivities Gil Gambash and Paula Zajac Department of Maritime Civilizations Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies University of Haifa Current research recognizes a significant bias in our understanding of Mediterranean connectivity in antiquity, emanating from persistent scholarly focus on large artificial harbors, regular long-distance routes, and high-value goods, shipped onboard big, sophisticated ships during a carefully observed sailing season. Left out of the picture are the small ships of cabotage, carrying a great variety of goods, and travelling throughout the year along short, mutable routes with frequent stops. These are Horden and Purcell’s ‘proletarians of the sea’, and their routine often involved small anchorages, natural or slightly modified, termed by Leidwanger (2013) ‘opportunistic ports’. In the southern Levant, notorious for its unwelcoming coastline, it was the sites of Akko-Ptolemais during the Hellenistic period, and Caesarea Maritima during the Roman period, that detracted scholarly attention from numerous smaller coastal sites, undeveloped and unregulated by centralized control, and often scarcely documented. It is also for this reason that the area between Tyre and Gaza is still little represented in general discussions of Mediterranean connectivity, and is yet to be examined against prevailing paradigms, including that of ‘connectivities’, which aims to examine regional interactions in a holistic way, acknowledging the diversity of possible ways, extents and dimensions of connections within the Mediterranean (e.g. van Dommelen and Knapp, 2010; Lichtenberger and von Rüden, 2015). This paper focuses on the late Hellenistic and early Roman period. From a micro-regional perspective, it is not only along the coastline that greater importance should be accorded to the economic significance of smaller sites. To the extent that they too were ‘corrupted’ by the sea, the inland should also be incorporated into the examination of the southern Levant’s part within Mediterranean networks. Material culture is naturally the key for such an evaluation, and using such indicators as the circulation of ceramics, building materials and technological innovations, the southern Levant may be portrayed as a highly connected Mediterranean micro-region. References Leidwanger, J. 2013 Opportunistic ports and spaces of exchange in Late Roman Cyprus. Journal of Maritime Archaeology 8: 221–243. Lichtenberger, A., and C. von Rüden (eds) 2015 Multiple Mediterranean Realities: Current Approaches to Spaces, Resources, and Connectivities. Mittelmeerstudien 6. Paderborn, Munich, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh Verlag, and Fink-Verlag. Van Dommelen, P., and A.B. Knapp (eds) 2010 Material Connections in the Ancient Mediterranean: Mobility, Materiality and Identity. London: Routledge.

2013

This paper examines several interrelated aspects of maritime connectivity within the Roman Mediterranean. First, it considers Fulford’s suggestion of a divide between eastern and western trading zones along the North African coast in the light of new discoveries since the publication of his article in Libyan Studies in 1989. Some evidence supports his analysis; the distribution of Italian bricks imported as return cargoes to North Africa does not extend east of the Gulf of Sirt; by contrast the identifiable exports from Cyrenaica go north up the Adriatic but not west to Tripolitania. However, the imported finewares at Berenice (Benghazi) in the third century AD are almost exclusively African Red Slip ware from Tunisia, though it is unclear if they have been imported directly (as clearly occurred much earlier with the import of Punic cooking wares to Cyrenaica), or as return cargoes from an intermediate entrepôt such as Portus. The idea of a certain amount of traffic along the North African littoral is supported by the epigraphic evidence suggesting Alexandrian worshippers at sanctuaries of Isis and Sarapis at major North African ports west of the Gulf of Sirt, who may be part of trading diaspora communities, of the kind attested at Puteoli and elsewhere. Such trading communities at major ports suggest regular mercantile connections on established routes, with knowledge about general market demand (if not actual price levels) at distant ports, and sometimes contacts between known trading partners. The glass industry is considered as a case study illustrating the geographical integration of the Roman economy through maritime networks between ports. Roman glass production relied heavily on large-scale primary production of raw glass in the Levant, using natron imported from Egypt. The raw glass was then shipped around the Roman world to secondary production centres where it was transformed into a final product; the different stages of production were linked by long-distance maritime trade routes. Finally, the paper examines how port structures, capacities and facilities might relate to and reflect the patterns of maritime trade in antiquity. The type and size of port infrastructure and harbour capacity can help to construct hierarchies of ports, ranging from villa harbours to major entrepôts like Portus, and to suggest connections between them within regional hierarchies. It is noteworthy that some of the villa harbours of the Roman period could accommodate sizeable sea-going ships capable of undertaking open-water voyages to distant emporia.

Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2021

The 21st c. finds maritime archaeology burgeoning on a global scale. Maritime archaeologists, now fully integrated into academia and current scholarly dialogue, are exploring new paths through and beyond integral subjects of our domainnamely, iconography, harbors, and shipbuilding. New theoretical and technological challenges, such as digital applications and, more recently, network analysis, lead to intriguing new ideas and open new paths for exploring the past. As a maritime archaeologist who works in the eastern Mediterranean, I opened this book with great interest and with a genuine incentive to sail into the "Roman seas" of "Eastern Mediterranean economies." The book is divided into six chapters, accompanied by two appendixes and an index. The first three chapters (109 pages, almost half of the main text), are well-researched introductions to the main components of maritime archaeology treated in this book. Comprehensive overviews of previous scholarship, based on a copious and up-to-date bibliography, can be used with confidence by scholars who need a kick start in this area of research. Certain sections on the applications and potential of network theory in maritime archaeology, in particular, are very informative and create a robust theoretical context. The first chapter, "Maritime interaction and Mediterranean communities," sets the scene for what is to follow and establishes the goal of the booknamely, "to identify patterns and densities of connections through the movements of people and goods, between the 2nd century BC and the 7th century AD" (5). Four short but well-explained sections discuss basic concepts and research areas: "movement, connectivity, and economic history," "Roman maritime economies," "shipwreck data sets"and they introduce the "Eastern Mediterranean case studies." Overarching themes that the reader encounters throughout the booksuch as regionalism, the necessity for a multiscalar approach to Roman maritime economies, and the significance of small ships and portsare first addressed here. The second chapter, "Topography and tools of interaction," focuses on ancient seafaring and navigation. The rich literature on the subject is well handled, and the author deftly summarizes the results of previous research. Some topics could have been covered more thoroughly, such as the history of shipbuilding, where an opportunity is missed to better contextualize the social aspects of various traditions by elaborating on Pomey's idea of different structural families of boats and ships. 1 But the overall discussion is well structured, and what the reader takes away is another key theme of this book: the significance of the

+1 3.1 Map of Cyprus in its eastern Mediterranean context, with Vasilikos and Maroni valleys in detail 50 3.2 Map of Amathus showing acropolis and necropolises in inset, with Iron Age survey finds from Amathus and Vasilikos and Maroni valleys 52 3.3 Map of Vasilikos and Maroni valleys with survey finds and sites mentioned in text 55 3.4 Position of Kalavasos-Vounaritashi in the mid-Vasilikos valley showing survey units 58 3.5 Position of Maroni-Vournes on littoral showing survey units 59 3.6 Chart detailing the percentages of known types of ceramic wares, in chronological categories 60 4.1 Bronze bowl said to be from Idalium, Cyprus 83 4.2 Profile view of bronze bowl said to be from Idalium, Cyprus 86 4.3 Detail showing decorating techniques of bronze bowl said to be from Idalium, Cyprus 86 4.4 Bronze bowl from Grave 42, Kerameikos cemetery, Athens 87 4.5 Line drawing of bronze bowl from Tomb 70, Toumba cemetery, Lefkandi 88 5.1 "Phoenician" silver bowl with battle scenes in relief, from Amathus, Cyprus 106 5.2 Cretan black cup with incised scene of footrace (funeral game?), from temple at Kommos, Crete 108 5.3 Early Iron Age carved ivory seal, from the Hypogeion at Methone; Archaic stone mold (half) for metal jewelry, Methone 111 5.4 Archaic Attic cup from Methone 112 230-104079_ch01_2P.indd 7 230-104079_ch01_2P.indd 7 11/02/22 3:02 PM 11/02/22 3:02 PM viii List of Figures-1-0-+1-5.5 Late or Subgeometric skyphos from Methone with incised inscription under handle 112 6.1 The topography of Sinope on the southern Black Sea coast 127 6.2 Reconstruction of area under Phrygian control during the eighth century BCE 130 6.3 Map of the Trojan Catalogue 133 7.1 Bronze bowl with Phoenician inscription, Knossos, Tekke, Chamber Tomb J 144 7.2 Bronze "amphora" of Cypriot manufacture that served as the cinerary urn of the Middle Protogeometric burial 146 7.3 Engraved Near Eastern bronze bowl, Lefkandi, Toumba cemetery, Tomb 55, no. 28 147 7.4 Select Near Eastern imports from the Toumba cemetery at Lefkandi 148 7.5 Levantine bronze bowl from Athens, Kerameikos Geometric Grave 42 150 7.6 Athenian Agora, Grave 15, Tomb of the "Rich Athenian Lady" 151 7.7 Three Phoenician amphorae from Methone 156 7.8 Elephant ivory debitage or manufacturing discard from the West Hill of Methone 157 8.1 Tribute bearer wearing bow fibula 172 8.2 Rock relief depicting Warpalawa of Tuhana and Tarhunzas, Ivriz, south-central Turkey 175 8.3 Molded colorless glass phiale; Gordion, Tumulus P; Petaled bronze phiale with decorated omphalos; Gordion, Tumulus MM 177 8.4 Decorated gold juglet; Nimrud, Northwest Palace, Tomb III, Coffin 2 179 8.5 Detailed views of the two ends of bronze belt from Gordion City Mound, South Cellar deposit; Detail, bronze belt from the Artemision, Ephesus 183 230-104079_ch01_2P.indd 8 230-104079_ch01_2P.indd 8 11/02/22 3:02 PM 11/02/22 3:02 PM-1-0-+1 The chapters in this volume originated in a conference that was held at the University of Chicago's Franke Institute for the Humanities in January 2018. The conference was made possible through the generosity of the Loeb Classical Library Foundation and the Franke Institute and Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago. We are also grateful for the support and assistance that was provided by faculty and graduate students in the Departments of Classics, History, and Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations. Of the eleven papers originally delivered at the conference, revised versions of eight are included in this volume. Regrettably, we were unable to include the contributions by Lin Foxhall, Hermann Genz, and Ömür Harmanşah, although we did solicit additional chapters from John Papadopoulos and Michael Dietler, both of whom made substantive contributions to the conference, and a desire to extend the coverage of the contributions to include Egypt led to a chapter being commissioned from Brian Muhs. We would like to thank all those who participated in the conference that set the stage for the current volume. We are especially indebted to the anonymous peer reviewers, whose detailed and valuable comments improved the volume immensely. We would like to express our gratitude to our colleagues at the University of Chicago Press, Rebecca Brutus, Jenni Fry, and Adrienne Meyers, and to John Donohue at Westchester Publishing Services. As always, Susan Bielstein has been a constant source of encouragement and support. Transliterations of Greek names follow the conventions in the English version of Brill's New Pauly Online.