Astures

The Iberian Peninsula in the 3rd century BC.

The Astures or Asturs, also named Astyrs, were the Hispano-Celtic inhabitants of the northwest area of Hispania that now comprises almost the entire modern autonomous community of the Principality of Asturias, the modern province of León, and the northern part of the modern province of Zamora (all in Spain), and eastern Trás os Montes in Portugal. They were a horse-riding highland cattle-raising people who lived in circular huts of stone drywall construction. The Albiones were a major tribe from western Asturias. Isidore of Seville gave an etymology as coming from a river Astura, identified by David Magie as the Órbigo River in the plain of León, and by others as the modern Esla River.

Location

Conventus Asturum

The Asturian homeland encompassed the modern autonomous community of Asturias and the León, eastern Lugo, Orense, and northern Zamora provinces, along with the northeastern tip of the Portuguese region of Trás-os-Montes. Here they held the towns of Lancia (Villasabariego – León), Asturica (Astorga – León), Mons Medullius (Las Medulas? – León), Bergidum (Cacabelos, near Villafranca del Bierzo – León), Bedunia (Castro de Cebrones – León), Aliga (Alixa? – León), Curunda (Castro de Avelãs, Trás-os-Montes), Lucus Asturum (Lugo de Llanera – Asturias), Brigaetium (Benavente – Zamora), and Nemetobriga (A Pobra de Trives – Ourense), which was the religious center.

Origins

The Astures may have been part of the early Hallstatt expansion that left the Bavarian-Bohemian homeland and migrated into Gaul, some continuing over the mountains into Spain and Portugal. By the 6th century BC, they occupied castros (hillforts), such as Coanna and Mohias near Navia on the coast of the Bay of Biscay. From the Roman point-of-view, expressed in the brief remarks of the historians Florus, epitomising Livy, and Orosius , the Astures were divided into two factions, following the natural division made by the alpine karst mountains of the Picos de Europa range: the Transmontani (located in the modern Asturias, "beyond"— that is, north of— the Picos de Europa) and Cismontani (located on the "near" side, in the modern area of León). The Transmontani, placed between the Navia River and the central massif of the Picos de Europa, comprised the Iburri, Luggones, Paesici, Paenii, Saelini, Vinciani, Viromenici and Baedunienses; the Cismontani included the Amaci, Cabruagenigi, Lancienses, Lougei, Tiburi, Brigaecini, Orniaci, Superatii, Gigurri, Zoelae and Susarri (which dwelled around Asturica Augusta, in the Astura river valley, and was the main Astur town in Roman times). Prior to the Roman conquest in the late 1st century BC, they were united into a tribal federation with the mountain-top citadel of Asturica (Astorga) as their capital.

Culture

Recent epigraphic studies suggest that they spoke a ‘Q-Celtic’ language akin to the neighbouring Gallaeci Lucenses and Braccarenses (see Gallaecia). Although the Celtic language was lost during the Roman era, it still endures in many names of villages and geographical features, mostly associated to Celtic deities: the parish of Taranes and the villages of Tereñes, Táranu, Tarañu and Torañu related to the god Taranis, the parish of Lugones related to the god Lugus or the parish of Beleño related to the god Belenus, just to name a few.

According to classic authors, their family structure was matrilineal, whereby the woman inherits the ownership of property. The Astures lived in hill forts, established in strategic areas and built with round walls in today's Asturias and the mountainous areas of León, and with rectangular walls in flatter areas, similarly to their fellow Galicians. Their warrior class consisted of men and women and both sexes were considered fierce fighters.

Religion

Most of their tribes, like the Lugones, worshipped the Celtic god Lugh, and references to other Celtic deities like Taranis or Belenos still remain in the toponomy of the places inhabited by the Astures. They may have venerated the deity Busgosu.

Language

The Asturico was a paleohispanic language of Indo-European origin spoken by the ancient Astures in their territory and known by its epigraphic inscriptions, its toponyms and theonyms transmitted by classical sources.

The insertion of Asturico in the family of Indo-European languages is commonly accepted today. It trumps the discussion of the possibility of Eusquera-type languages having ever been spoken in Asturian or Cantabrian lands.

One of the major problems found when trying to include Asturico in a linguistic family is its existence in the sphere of the only two Indo-European languages in the Iberian Peninsula of which we have written accounts: Celtiberian and Lusitanian.

Therefore, while the first shares the innovations that define the Celtic language family, such as the loss of the p- at the beginning of words and between vowels, which is a conditio sine qua non to consider a language Celtic (patēr / atīr), Lusitanian offers characteristics that are incompatible with the knowledge we have of the Celtic language (Schmidt, Witczak), the most obvious being the use of the p-.

The characteristics of Asturico lean in either sense, with the use or disuse of the phoneme /P/ being the defining trait that draws Asturico closer to Lusitanian or Celtiberian, and ultimately insert it or separate it from the Celtic linguistic roots.

In all, most authors subscribe a Celtic origin for Astur, and nevertheless place it among the neighbouring languages of the Vettons, Cantabrians, Galaicos and Vacceos, in the so-called Western Hispano-Celt subgroup. Among them, Asturico has its own peculiarities that give it a unique character.

a) Indo-European Consonants:

• p>p?:This is the trait that offers the most doubts, as there are obvious cases of use as well as ohters in which it was not used. As examples of the first case, progeneo, ‘relative’, ‘next of kin’ < *pro-gen-eio, that in Celtic would be *ro-gen-eio, ‘relative’, or Provesica ‘she who has wisdom’, <*pro-weid-t-ika, where we see the Celtic rovesia, ‘wisdom’. <*ro-weid-t-y-am (Old Irish rofess).

More doubtful examples would be the names of Pedilico or Pitilico, that could be related to the Latin im-petus and petulus , ‘energetic’ and ‘courageous’; and also with the Greek pítulos, ‘shake’, all of them from the root PIE *Pet- (Pokorny: 825-826).

It is also correct to admit that the superlative Paramo < *pr̥h-m̥o, ‘supreme, the first, the highest’, that gives name to high lands is parallel to the Germanic furist < *pr̥h-ist-o ‘prince’, the Hindu paramáḥ and the Italic God Touto Peremusto < *per-m̥-ist-o.

On the contrary, a clear case of the loss of the p- is seen in the people of the Cilurnigos (*kelpurn-i-kos), and maybe in the Onnakos if their name comes from the river Onna ,’Güeña’, to which a Celtic origin is attributed: onna-‘river’ (*pon-na).

Lake Enol < Enolo , through a diminutive (*peno-lo), ‘little lake’, mirrors the Celtic eno, ‘marshland’, which gave its name to the Swiss lake Inn < (*pen-yo). In the area of Valdeorras and bordering with the Galaicos, we find Mount Larouco (*plaro-uko), ‘flattened, plain’, that shows the disuse of the p- from *plh₂-ró (old Irish. lár).

Among the Cantabrians and the tribe of the Orgenomescos it is common to include in their name the term ‘Celtic’ for murder, orgenom (*porge-no). Finally, the toponym Olloniego <*ollonaeko seems to reflect a demonym combining igüau and the name ollonos, ‘big’, in relation to the Old Irish oll that links to the Celtic *ollos, ‘big’, (*polh₁-no)

• bʰ > b: Asturico changed the bilabial aspirate Indo-European phoneme /bʰ/, to /b/, which made it more similar to Lusitanian and Celtic, but that separated it from Latin where this group was done in /f/. There are also the examples of the Astur Bergidum, ‘high place’, (*bʰerg-y-dom), or Balaeso, ‘luminous’, (*bʰelā-so).

• dʰ > d: This is a trait that assimilates it to Celtic languages and separates it from Latin, that resolves it in /f/. The ancient Dobra River and Dubra ‘deep river’ (*dʰeubʰ-ro). Vendiricus, ‘cattle with long mane of hair’. (*wendʰi-rics). Andamo, ‘the lowest’, < *n̥dʰ-m̥os, old Latin enfemos ‘infimal’.

• gʷ > b: The occlusive labio-velar /gʷ/ changed to /b/. It coincides thus with Lusitanian, Celtic and Latin. The Astur Bovecius ‘like a bull’ < *gʷou-i-k-y-os (Latin bovis and Celtic bou). Asturico bādiom ‘bañu’ <*gʷōdʰ-y-om, célticu común bādiom.

• d > d: Same result as the Western Indo-European branch Dēua, ‘goddess’ (from there, all the streams and rivers named Deva) <* dēiw-eh₂, and maybe the Astur xana , < *dēuana ‘divine’.

• t > t: Same result as the Western Indo-European branch Trittio ‘third’ < *tr̥t-y-os.

• kw > kw: In this way and from a hipothetical *equos, ‘horse’ <*ekwos. we get what is shown on the stone dedicated in dative plural to the equeunos gods (equine), (*ekwe-mn-os). This is a trait that is common to all Paleo-Hispanic languages, as well as Latin and Goidelic Celt, but not Briton that does it in /p/. (ex. Epona < ekwo-na).

• kʷ > p: Prosper and Sevilla defend a vast difference from the previous group, that concords with the Briton in the use of the labio velar in occlusive bilabial /P/. Also Pentovio and Pinta(w)io, ‘fifth’ < *kʷen(kʷ)to-wyo. Modern examples would be the double words constructed parallel to Latin: Pedroveña ‘four borders’ <*kʷettuor-finiam, with Cuadroveña <*quattuor-finiam. And Pintueles < *kʷento-l-is with Quintueles <*quinto-l-is.

• w > w: Same result as the Western Indo-European branch Vernesga ‘Bernesga’ < *wĕrn-ēska, ‘poplar river’, and Vinico ‘familiar’ < *weni-k-os and Venino < *weni-n-os, both based on venia, ‘family’ < *wen-y-eh₂.

b) Treatment of groups:

Group *dy > z: Astur is closew to Celtiberian in the fricative . Also Zoela, ‘celestial’ (*dyow-y-la) has a similar result to the Celtiberian ozeom (* pody-om), since it is not the same case as Celtiberian fricatizes the -d- between vowels while the Astur only does it before y or d. On the opposite side, we find the Lusitanian Ioveai (*dyow-y-ai) and llatín Iouis (*dyow-is) and Iūlius (*dyow-ly-os) that omit the dental sound. It is the trait that distinguishes Asturico from Lusitanian

Group *dw > w: The omission coincides with Gallian and becomes clear in Vacoria ‘ she who has two armies’, a proper noun that can be related to the Gallian vocorios, petrucorios and tricorios, ‘with two, four and three armies’. Also, *wacoria must have come from *dwa-coria, where we see the feminine numeral in Briton Celtic uā ‘two’ (*dw ā)

Group *kt > t(t): Common trait in Hispanic Tettonius in Badajoz, (*tekt-on-yos) Vettones (*vekt-on-es) Retugenos in Celtiberia (*rektu-genos < *reigʰ-tu-genos). This result is seen in the Asturico Ambatus, ‘servant’ (ambʰi-akt-os) and Dureta ‘twisted’ (*durekta < *du-reigʰ-ta) although in some places in Celtiberia there is the trait of pronouncing it Dureita and in southern areas with the resulting -st- Contestani (*Kom-tekt-o).

Group *ks > s(s): This is a common trait with Celtiberian and insular Celt that separates it from Latin. We can see this in Dessonkos, from where we get the Indo-European *dekswo, ‘south, right’. Asturico equates its term with that of the Vaccean city of Dessobriga (*dekswo-bʰr̥gʰa) and with the old Irish dess, ‘south’, unlike the Latin dekster.

Group *tt, *dt, *dd > s(s): Common trait with Celtic and Latin Conso (*komdto < *kom-dʰh₁-to) and Provesica (*Prowess-ika < *Pro-weid-t-ika).

Group *ns > s(s): Cosso (Conso < *komdto < *kom-dʰh1-to). Common trait with the Galaic Asseconia, ‘favourable’ (*n̥s-ek-on-y-a), and the Lusitanian Assaeco ‘favourable’ (*n̥s-a ik-o).

Group nd, mb = nd, mb: Astur kept the origiunal groups ‘ón’ when Celtic began to change them to /nn/ and /mm/. In that way we get Candamios, ‘the brightest’, (*kand-m̥-y-o) and Ambatus ‘servant’ (*ambʰi-akt-os), which should be compared to the Irish cann and ammaig. The element benda ‘peak, beam’ (*bend-a) that appears in some Asturian toponyms Vagabrobenda, Caldobenda, Voligobenda, etc., has to be related to the old Irish benna (*bend-a). ‘peak, beam’. Nevertheless there are some cases of assimilation-nn: Ablonnio ‘proud’ (*aplom-d-y-o).

Group *ln > ll: Common trait with Western Indo-European. In that way we have Collacinos from the city Colla-ka or Colla-ntium where we find the element colla ‘head, hill’ (Latin collis (*kol-nis) Irish coll (<*kol-nos).

Group *pl > bl: Common trait between Common Celtic (with the loss of /p/) and Lusitanian and Latin (with its permanence). In Asturico we find Ablonnio ‘proud’ (*aplom-d-y-o) as well as in neighbouring peoples. The Cantabrians Blendios ‘brilliant’ (*s-plēnd-y-os) has to be related to the Latin splendeo ‘shine’, with a silent phoneme; and with the Irish lenstu ‘flash’ (*s-plend-to), where we can see the loss of the occlusive. The same applies to the Vetton city of Bletisama ‘very flat’ (*plet-isam-a), neighbouring with the Astures and relate to the Latin planum and with common Celt Letisama.

Grupu *pr > br: It is seen in Cabruagenigos ‘the people of Cabruadgeno’ (*kapru-ad-gen-os). Again, it is an intermediate trait between common Celt (with the loss of /p/) and Latin (without it) as we can see from the Latin caprī and Celtic caora (*kap-ura).

c) Assimilations:

Assimilation of the series *n…bʰ > n…m: This is a Celtic trait found in the Asturico Nimmedus ‘sacred’ < *nebʰe-tos y nel topónimu Nemetobriga ‘sacred city’ < *nebʰe-to-bʰr̥gh-eh₂, the same as the common Celtic nemos ‘sky’ < *nebʰos y nemetom ‘sanctuary’ < *nebʰ-etom

Assimilation of the series *tn > nt y *dʰn > ndʰ: It’s a common trait with Celtic and Latin, found in Astur due to mons Vindios ‘white’ < *win-dʰ-yo < *widʰ-n-yo (Compare with Latin Fundo < *bʰun-dʰo < *bʰudʰ-no).

d) Secondary Consonant Developments:

First degree of Lenition –*k- > -g-: Sonorization of the intervocal silent occlusives. Examples are Bovegio / Bovecio, Vago / Vaco, Degantia < Dekamtia or the change of the suffixes – iko = -igo, Cilurnigom < *Kel(p)urn-ikom, Cabruagenigom < *Kapru-ad-gen-ikom, y -*ako > -ago: Seddiago < *Seddiako.

First Degree of Lenition –*t- > -d-: Sonorization of the dental intervocal silent occlusives. Therefore, Nimmedus < Nemetos, Tridio < Tritio, Do(v)idero / Dovitero, Cludamo / Clutamo, Ambadus / Ambatus, Pedilico / Pitilico.

Loss of the Intervowel fricative: -*w- > -Ø-: It is seen in the egroups e(w)o Deogena ‘daughter of the goddess’ = Devogena, o(w)a: Noanios ‘ninth’ = Novanios (*nown̥-y-os). Group o(w)i: Doidena = Dovidena, Zoela ‘celestial’ = Zovila (*dyowila). Group a(w)e Deo Aerno ‘eternal’ (*aiwe-r-no). Group a(w)i Nailo ‘Nalón, little navia(river)’ (*nawilo), Pintaius = Pintavius, etc. Group u(w)o Cossuo = Cossuvo. Maybe in Noega, Noiga or Noika Ucesia ‘new Ucesia’ If Noega, originates from *nowika (cif. llatín novi-ky-a).

This is a phenomenon that is spread through the north Cantabrian and loses force in the southernmost regions, generating a chain of diphthongs that, as in Galaic, cannot be considered etymological.

Confusion of the labial occlusives b = p: We see this in Borma/Porma ‘Puerma (proper name)’ < *Bʰorm-a, a common trait with Irish (bus/pus ‘lip’), the Briton (broella/proella), Basque (bake/pake ‘peace’) and modern Asturico (búcara/púcara ‘pot, pan’). Since this confusion is common to the languages that that share the loss of the initial p- of words, M. Sevilla mentions that it is why the /p/ has also fallen in disuse in Asturico. So in the absence of the /p/ there’s is no phonological use for occlusives, and therefore the confusion that ensues.

Absence of betacism -*w- ≠ -b-: If betacism was the response to the insecurity experimented by the speakers due to the /w/ phoneme it is logical that Asturico has no signs of this phenomenon. The insecurity is resolved by its disuse. Also the disuse of the fricative and betacism are two phenomena that are caused by the same problem and therefore excluding. Betacism is a southern phenomenon that is seen in the lands of the Vettones and the Lusitanians, following the course of the river Tajo. The different result is seen in the northern Galaic Saurium and the Carpetan Con-Sabura (both from *sawur-).

General Sustaining of the intervowel : -*g- > -g-: The same as the Cantabrians and different from Galaic, ther is the tendency to preserve the /-g-/ before a vowel. We also find Bergidom < *bʰerg-y-dom, as opposewd to the Galaic Beriso. < *bʰerg-y-som; Magilo opposite the Galaic Mailo <*mh₂eg-y-lo; Segimo < *segʰi-s’mo and Segisama < *segʰi-sama, opposite the Galaic Sesma < *sesama < *seisama < *segʰi-sama, etc.

Vocalism:

a) Indo-European Vowels:

• a / *h₂e > a. Same result for Celtic and Latin. The Asturico ‘abia’, «river» (*h₂eb-y-a) and abris ‘waters’ (*h₂eb-r-is), Celtic abon ‘river’ (*h₂eb-on-a); Latin amnis ‘river’ (*h₂eb-nis). The Asturico Attio ‘uncle’ (*h₂ett-y-os); Old Irish. Alio ‘other, second’ (*h₂el-y-os) Old Irish aile.

• ā / *eh₂ > ā with a possible secondary development in ae: In this way, Brigaetium = Brigātium (*bʰr̥gʰ-eh₂-t-y-om). Belaeso = Belāso (*bʰel-eh₂-s-o), and the Celtic suffix -āko which sometimes develops into -aeko.

Nevertheless, De Bernardo mentions that this diphtong ae/ai has its origins in an anticipatory assimilation phenomenon, from suffixes of the type ak-ya > ay-ka: Brigakya (*bʰr̥gʰ-ak-y-a) > Brigaeka / Brigayka.

• e / *h₁e > e. Bergidum ‘high place’ (*bʰh₁erg-y-dom).

• ē / *eh₁ > ī Well known Celtic trait thanks to the example rix ‘re’ in opposition to the Latin rēx and present in the Astur Sīlo ‘portion, offspring’ (*seh₁-lo). Old Irish sīl, and the name Vendiricus ‘hairy bovine’ if the piece ricus were a flexion de *rēcs ‘re’, as Prosper justifies.

• i > i. The Asturico Virio ‘masculine’ (*wir-y-os), same as in Latin vir, and Old Irish fer (*wir-os).

• o / *h₃e > o. Borma/Porma ‘Puerma’(proper noun) (*bʰh₃er-ma) and Borines (*bʰh₃er-mi-nis).

• ō / *eh₃ > ā. Again, typical Celtic trait shown in the Astur Baedunia = Bādunia ‘balnearium’ (*gʷōdʰ-un-y-a). In common In common Celtic bādiom. The proper noun Blattia (*bʰlōt-y-eh₂) ‘flourished’ containsthe name of the flower blāto (*bʰlōto). Common Celtic blato; Latin floris (*bʰlō-ris). The Celtic adjective āku ‘fast’ resembles the Indo-European *ōku, and leaves in Asturico the name accula,’fast’. It is believed that the name of the rive Sama in Grao could come from the adjective ‘samo’, «calm, tranquil», the same as sàm, ‘calm, tranquil’ in Irish and that joins the root < *sōmo. It is an isogloss that differentiates Asturico from Lusitanian and brings it closer to Celtiberian.

• H > a. Any Indo-European laryngeal (h₁, h₂, h₃) between consonants, represented by H turns to /a/ when they are not both occlusive. Also Elano ‘deer’ (*h₁elHn-o) (Welsh- elain). Ablaidacos ‘very pale’ (ad-bʰlHi-dos). Matugeno ‘well born’ (*mHtu-genos), where we see the Celtic mati ‘good’ (Old Irish- maith).

b) Diphtongs:

• ei / *ēi > ē. The same as in common Celtic, which separates Astur from Latin (that reduces the diphtong in /ī/) and Lusitanian (that keeps the old diphtong /ei/). Thereby, the Asturico Deva ‘goddess’ (*deiw-a), different from the Latin dīva y lusitanu deibo. The river Esva ‘fast river’ < *eis-wa, Provesica < *pro-weid-t-ika, and the dative Cossue < *kossowei.

• eu / *ēu > ou with a secondary development in u. Lucocadia, ‘white fortress?’ < *lewko-kad-y-a. Clouto y Cluto ‘famosu’ < *klew-tos, Lougeos ‘black, crows?’ < *lewg-y-os. No(w)anio ‘ninth’ < *newn̥-y-os, and the dative Cossue < *kossowei.

c) Vocalisation in 0 degree:

• r̥ before occlussive > ri. The vowel structure in /ri/ of the liquid sound in Zero degree r̥ is a Celtic trait, contrary to Latin that vocalises in /or/, /ur/. The Asturico Brigaetium < *bʰr̥gʰ-ā-t-y-om, or Tritio < *tr̥t-y-os.

• n̥ > an. The vowel structure in /an/ of the nasal in 0 degree n̥ is a Celtic trait, contrary to Latin that vocalises in /en/. Also the Asturico Arganticaenos developed from argantom ‘silver’ < *argn̥-t-om, contrary to the Latin argentum. We also see it in the river Arganza in Tinéu, that comes fromthe old Argantia ‘silvery’ < *argn̥-t-y-a. The Asturico No(w)anio ‘ninth’ < *nown̥-y-os, compared to Latin novenus. Mandica ‘goddess of the foals’ < *mn̥d-y-ka, Galian mandos ‘foal’ < *mn̥d-os, Compared to Latin iovi menzana ‘Jupiter of the sacrifices of horses’ < *mn̥d-y-ono.

• m̥ > am. Same vowel structure in /am/ of the nasal in 0 degree m̥, contrary to the Latin /em/. Also the Asturico Degantia `tenth’ < *dekm̥-t-y-a, is an ordinal developed from the numeral decam ‘ten’ < *dekm̥ which is opposed to the Latin decem. The Asturico superlatives Los –(is)amos < *is-m̥-os, opposite the Latin -isimus/-isemus.

d) Secondary vowel developments:

Tendency to vowel closure e > In this way Vinicos < *Venikos (this becomes Venica among the Vettones). Nimmedus / Nemetos, Cilurnigos < *kelurnikos, etc.

Change of the post-tonic i > e. This is an exclusive development of Asturico, that was noted by Prosper. The author attributes a Celtic origin related to the opening of protoCeltic /i/ when it is not followed by a pallatal vowel: Tillegus = Tillicus (in Dijon), Careca = Carica (in Soria, Ávila and Toledo), Ableca = Ablicos (in Cáceres), Lougeos < *lougios, Parameco < *Paramico, Segeo = Segio, etc.

e(…)ā > a(…)ā. Well known Celtic phenomenon of vocalic harmony called the Law of Joseph and seen in the anthroponym Balaeso ‘luminous’ < *bʰelā-so.

With regards to the mophology or the structure of words, we barely know of examples of -o themed names

-Singular nominative in -os. viros ‘the man’. Common Celtic viros.

-Singular Genitive in -i. viri ‘of the man’. Common Celtic viri.

-Plural Genitive in -om. virom ‘of men’. Common Celtic virom.

The gentilic nouns of the group ablaidacorum, cilurnigorum, viromenigorum, are plural Latin gentilic nouns based on previous Asturian genitives: *Cilurnigom, *Viromenigom, etc. In this way, Medugeno wasn’t referring to the people of the Cilurnigos but the people of a person called Cilurnu.

Dative singular in -ue. virue ‘for the man’. Common Celtic virui. Dative plural in -ubo. virubo ‘for the men’. Common Celtic virobo.

Short vocabulary: Abia (river) (PC "abū" (river), Latin "amnis" (river), Welsh "afon" (river)) Alio (other) (PC "alyos" (other, second), Latin "alius" (other, vid. Asturian "utru" via Vulgar Latin "alterus"), Irish "eile" (other)) Argantom (silver) (PC "argantom" (silver), Latin "argentum" (silver, vid. Asturian "arxentu/arientu"), Irish "argaid" (silver)) Attio (uncle) (PC "attyos" (father), Latin "atta" (father), Old Irish "aite" (foster father, teacher, tutor)) Badiom/Padiom (bath) (PC "badyom" (bath), Old Irish "báid") Badunia/Padunia (termal waters, spa) (PC "badyonyā" (place with termal waters)) Benda/Penda/Benna/Penna (peak, apex) (PC "bandā" (peak, apex), Latin "pinnam" (peak, apex; vid. Asturian "penna"), Irish "beann/binn") Blato (flower) (PC "blātus" (flower), Latin "flōs" (flower, vid. Asturian "flir" via Vulgar Latin "flōris"), Irish "bláth") Blaido (pale) (Latin "pālidus" (pale, vid. Asturian "páiu/páeu")) Bleto (plain) (PC "ɸlitanos" (plain), Latin "plantam" (plant, vid. Asturian "llanta"), Irish "leath") Briga (settlement) (PC "brigā" (hill, fortress), Latin "fors" (stronghold, fortress; vid. Asturian "fuirte" via Vulgar Latin "fortis"), Welsh "bre") Gabro/Cabro (goat) (PC "gabros" (goat), Latin "capram" (goat, vid. Asturian "caura"), Irish "gabhar") Cando/Canno (brilliant) (PC "kandos" (brilliant), Latin "candeō" (flash, vid. Asturian "candil" via Latin "candēlam"), Old Irish "cann") Cloutos/Clutos (famous) (PC "klutom" (rumor, fame, reputation), Latin "inclutus" (celebrated, famous, famed, renowned, illustrious; vid. Asturian "ínlletu"), Irish "cloth") Doubro/Dubro (deep waters) (PC "dubros" (dark), Irish "dobhar/dobhrán"; vid. rivers "Douro" (Asturian "Duiru") and "Dobra") Decam/Degam (ten) (PC "dekam" (ten), Latin "decem" (ten, vid. Asturian "diegá"), Irish: "deich") Decamtos/Degamtos (tenth) (PC "dekametos" (tenth), Latin "decimus" (tenth, vid. Asturian "déicemu"), Irish "deichiú") Desso (right, South) (PC "deχswos" (right, South), Latin "dexter" (right-handed, vid. Asturian "diesu"), Irish "deas") Deva/Dea (goddess) (PC "deiwā" (goddess), Latin "dea" (via "dewa", Asturian "deousa", feminine of "deóus", from Latin "Deus"), Irish "Día") Devana/Deana (divine) (PC "deiwanā" (divine) Latin goddess "Diana" (via "Dīwana"), Asturian mythological water fairy "xana" (from "devana/deana"), Gaulish city "Divona") Elano (deer) (PC "elanī" (doe, hind), Welsh "elain") Equos (horse) (PC "ekwos" (horse), Latin "equus" (horse, vid. Asturian "yega/xega" via feminine decclension "equam"), Irish "each") Celurno (bucket) (PC "kelɸurnos" (pail, bucket, pitcher, pot, vat, vessel), Latin "calpar" (vessel, cask, pitcher), Welsh "celwrn") Corio (troop, army) (PC "koryos" (troop, army), Latin "corium" (leather, vid. Asturian "cuiru"; cognate.), Irish "cuire") Lema (alder) (PC "limos" (elm), Latin "ulmus" (elm, vid. Asturian "umeiru" via Vulgar Latin "ulmarius"), Asturian "llameira" (elmgrove), Irish "leamhán") Lougo/Lugo (dark) (PC "lugos" (raven)) Louca/Luca (fire, light) (PC "leuχs" (light), Latin "lux" (light, vid. Asturian "llume" via Vulgar Latin "lumen"), Gaulish "leuχ") Magilos (noble, prince) (PC "maglos" (noble, chief), Old Irish "mál") Mandica/Mannica (mare) (PC "mandikā") Mando/Manno (foal) (PC "mando" (foal), Briton queen "Cartimandua") Matu (good) (PC "matis" (good), Latin "mānus" (good, vid. Asturian "mannusu" via Latin "admaniosus" (skilled)), Irish "maith") Nava (boat) (PC "nāwā" (boat), Latin "navis" (boat, vid. Asturian "nnagui"), Irish "nae") Navilo/Nailo (sailable) (Asturian river Nalón) Nemetos (sacred) (PC "nemetom" (sacred place, sanctuary), Latin "nemus" (wood, sacred forest), Irish "neimheadh") Novan/Noan (nine) (PC "nowan" (nine), Latin "novem" (nine, vid. Asturian "nnuigue"), Irish "naoi") Novanios/Noanios (ninth) (PC "nowametos" (ninth), Latin "novenus" (ninth, Asturian "nnouguén"), Irish "naoú") Eno (lake) (PC "ɸenos" (water), lake Enol in Asturias, Irish "eanach") Brogeneio (family) (PC "ɸroganyetor" (father, mother), Latin "progenitor" (father, mother; vid. Asturian "broxenetor"), Irish "róghin (artificial, cognate)") Brovesa/Broesa (knowledge) (PC "ɸrowesā" (knowledge), Old Irish "rofess") Sego (victory) (PC "segos" (victory)) Silo (son, seed) (PC "sīlom" (seed), Latin "sirum" (silo, vid. Asturian "síu"), Irish "síol" ) Tris (three) (PC "trīs" (three), Latin "trēs" (three, vid. Asturian "tréis"), Irish "trí") Tritio (third) (PC "tritiyos" (third), Latin "tertius" (third, vid. Asturian "terçeiru" via Vulgar Latin "tertiarius"), Irish "tríú") Verna (black poplar) (PC "wernā" (alder), Irish "fearn/fearnóg") Vindo/Vinno/Vindio/Vinnio (white) (PC "windos" (white), Irish "fionn") Virio (mannish) (PC "wiros" (man), Latin "vir" (man, vid. Asturian "guirire" via Latin "virilis"), Irish "fear") Va/Vo (two) (PC "duwo" (two), Latin "duō" (two, vid. Asturian "dóus"), Irish "dhá/dá/a dó")

Way of life

Gallaecian-Asturian gold torc (4th to 2nd century BC)

The Astures were vigorous hunter-gatherer highlanders who raided Roman outposts in the lowlands; a reputation enhanced by ancient authors, such as Florus ("Duae validissmae gentes, Cantabriae et Astures, immunes imperii agitabant") and Paulus Orosius ("duas fortissimas Hispaniae gentes"), but archeological evidence confirms that they also engaged in stock-raising in mountain pastures, complemented by subsistence farming on the slopes and in the lower valleys. They mostly reared sheep, goats, a few oxen and a local breed of mountain horse famed in Antiquity, the Asturcon, which still exists today. According to Pliny the Elder, these were small-stature saddle horses, slightly larger than ponies, of graceful walk and very fast, being trained for both hunting and mountain warfare.

During a large part of the year they used acorns as a staple food source, drying and powdering them and using the flour for a type of easily preserved bread; from their few sown fields that they had during the pre-Roman period, they harvested barley from which they produced beer (Zythos), as well as wheat and flax. Due to the scarcity of their agricultural production, as well as their strong war-like character, they made frequent incursions into the lands of the Vaccaei, who had a much more developed agriculture. Lucan calls them "Pale seekers after gold" ("Asturii scrutator pallidus auri").

History

The Astures entered the historical record in the late 3rd century BC, being listed amongst the Iberian Peninsula mercenaries of Hasdrubal Barca's army at the battle of Metaurus River in 207 BC. Silius Italicus also mentions an Astur mercenary contingent in Hannibal's army, led by a chieftain named Cydnus. After the 2nd Punic War, their history is less clear. Rarely mentioned in the sources regarding the Lusitanian, Celtiberian or Sertorian Wars, the Astures re-emerged only at the later 1st Century BC, when they provided auxiliary troops to the Pompeian army led by the generals' Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius that faced Julius Caesar at the battle of Ilerda (Lérida) in 49 BC, during the 2nd Roman Civil War.

Led by Gausón, a former mercenary commander, the Astures joined forces with the Cantabri to resist Emperor Augustus's conquest of the whole of the Iberian northwest, even backing an unsuccessful Vaccaei revolt in 29 BC. The campaign against the Astures and Cantabri tribes proved so difficult that it required the presence of the emperor himself to bolster the seven legions and one naval squadron involved. The first Roman campaign against the Astures (the Bellum Asturicum), which commenced in the spring of 26 BC, was successfully concluded in 25 BC with the ceremonial surrender of Mons Medullus to Augustus in person, allowing the latter to return to Rome and ostentatiously close the gates of the temple of Janus that same year. The reduction of the remaining Asture holdouts was entrusted to Publius Carisius, the legate of Lusitania, who, after managing to trap Gauson and the remnants of his troops at the hillfort of Lancia, subsequently forced them to surrender when he threatened to set fire to the town. The Astures were subdued by the Romans but were never fully conquered, and their tribal way of life changed very little.

As far as the official Roman history was concerned, the fall of this last redoubt marked the conclusion of the conquest of the Asturian lands, which henceforth were included alongside Gallaecia and Cantabria into the new Transduriana Province under the suffect consul Lucius Sestius Albanianus Quirinalis. This was followed by the establishment of military garrisons at Castrum Legio VII Gemina (León) and Petavonium (Rosinos de Vidriales – Zamora), along with colonies at Asturica Augusta (Astorga) and Lucus Asturum (Lugo de Llanera – Asturias).

In spite of the harsh pacification policies implemented by Augustus, the Asturian country remained an unstable region subjected to sporadic revolts – often carried out in collusion with the Cantabri – and persistent guerrilla activity that kept the Roman occupation forces busy until the mid-1st century AD. New risings occurred in 24–22 BC (the 2nd Astur-Cantabrian War), in 20–18 BC (3rd Astur-Cantabrian 'War') – sparked off by runaway Cantabrian slaves returning from Gaul – both of which were brutally quashed by General Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and again in 16–13 BC when Augustus crushed the last joint Astur-Cantabrian rebellion.

Romanization

Incorporated into the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis, the assimilation of the Asturian region into the Roman world was a slow and hazardous process, with its partially romanized people retaining the Celtic language, religion and much of their ancient culture throughout the Roman Imperial period. This included their martial traditions, which enabled them to provide the Roman Army with several auxiliary cavalry and infantry units (Ala I Asturum, Ala II Asturum, Cohors I Asturum, Cohors II Asturum, Cohors V Asturum, Cohors VI Asturum, Cohors I Asturum et Callaecorum) that participated in Emperor Claudius's invasion of Britain in AD 43–60, and which continued to serve into the late Empire. However, epigraphic evidence in the form of an inscribed votive stele dedicated by a Primipilus Centurion of Legio VI Victrix decorated for bravery in action confirms that the Astures staged a revolt in AD 54, prompting another vicious guerrilla war – unrecorded by surviving ancient sources – that lasted for fourteen years but the situation was finally calm around AD 68.

The early Middle Ages

During the Germanic invasions, the Astures resisted Suevi and Visigoth raids throughout the 5th century AD, only to be ultimately defeated and absorbed into the Visigothic Kingdom by the Visigothic King Sisebut in the early 6th century AD. However, the Astures continued to rebel, with King Wamba sending an expedition to the Asturian lands only twenty years before the Muslim invasion of the peninsula and the fall of the Visigothic kingdom. The Astures chose Pelagius of Asturias as their leader and in due course formed the Kingdom of Asturias.

Legacy

Maximum extension of Kingdom of Asturias, circa 910 AD. King Alfonso III of Asturias, (848 – 910)

At a later date, in the beginning of the Reconquista period in the early Middle Ages, their name was preserved in the medieval Kingdom of Asturias and in the modern town of Astorga, León, whose designation still reflects its early Roman name of Asturica Augusta, the "Augustan settlement of the Astures".

See also

• Leonese people
• Asturian people
• Astur-Cantabrian Wars
• Castro culture
• Gallaecia
• Eonavian
• Gausón
• Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
• Leonese language

Sources

• Almagro-Gorbea, Martín, Les Celtes dans la péninsule Ibérique, in Les Celtes, Éditions Stock, Paris (1997) ISBN 2-234-04844-3
• Cunliffe, Barry, The Celts – A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN 0-19-280418-9
• Duque, Ángel Montenegro et alli, Historia de España 2 – colonizaciones y formacion de los pueblos prerromanos, Editorial Gredos, Madrid (1989) ISBN 84-249-1013-3
• Lorrio Alvarado, Alberto José, Los Celtíberos, Editorial Complutense, Alicante (1997) ISBN 84-7908-335-2
• Martino, Eutimio, Roma contra Cantabros y Astures – Nueva lectura de las fuentes, Breviarios de la Calle del Pez n. º 33, Diputación provincial de León/Editorial Eal Terrae, Santander (1982) ISBN 84-87081-93-2
• Motoza, Francisco Burillo, Los Celtíberos – Etnias y Estados, Crítica, Grijalbo Mondadori, S.A., Barcelona (1998, revised edition 2007) ISBN 84-7423-891-9
• Jiménez, Ana Bernardo (dirección), Astures – pueblos y culturas en la frontera del Imperio Romano, Asociación Astures, Gran Enciclopedia Asturiana, Gijón (1995) ISBN 84-7286-339-5, 84-7286-342-5
• Koch, John T.(ed.), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO Inc., Santa Barbara, California (2006) ISBN 1-85109-440-7, 1-85109-445-8

Further reading

• F. Bartenstein, Bis ans Ende der bewohnten Welt. Die römische Grenz- und Expansionspolitik in der augusteischen Zeit, Herbert Utz Verlag, München (2014) ISBN 978-3-8316-4185-7, pp. 71–127.
• Berrocal-Rangel, Luis & Gardes, Philippe, Entre celtas e íberos, Real Academia de la Historia/Fundación Casa de Velázquez, Madrid (2001) ISBNs 978-84-89512-82-5, 978-84-95555-10-6
• Heinrich Dyck, Ludwig, The Roman Barbarian Wars: The Era of Roman Conquest, Author Solutions (2011) ISBNs 1426981821, 9781426981821
• Kruta, Venceslas, Les Celtes, Histoire et Dictionnaire: Des origines à la Romanization et au Christinisme, Èditions Robert Laffont, Paris (2000) ISBN 2-7028-6261-6
• Martín Almagro Gorbea, José María Blázquez Martínez, Michel Reddé, Joaquín González Echegaray, José Luis Ramírez Sádaba, and Eduardo José Peralta Labrador (coord.), Las Guerras Cántabras, Fundación Marcelino Botín, Santander (1999) ISBN 84-87678-81-5
• Varga, Daniel, The Roman Wars in Spain: The Military Confrontation with Guerrilla Warfare, Pen & Sword Military, Barnsley (2015) ISBN 978-1-47382-781-3
• Zapatero, Gonzalo Ruiz et alli, Los Celtas: Hispania y Europa, dirigido por Martín Almagro-Gorbea, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Editorial ACTAS, S.l., Madrid (1993) ISBNs 8487863205, 9788487863202

External links

• Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BCE)
• http://www.celtiberia.net