Mani Peninsula

Maniot landscape

The Mani Peninsula (Greek: Μάνη, romanized: Mánē), known historically as Maina or Maïna (Greek: Μαΐνη), is a geographical and cultural region of southern Greece. The Mani is the central of three peninsulas that extend southward from the Peloponnese into the Mediterranean Sea. The Laconian Gulf and, across the gulf, the peninsula of Cape Maleas are to the east. The Messenian Gulf and peninsula of Messenia are to the west. The Mani Peninsula terminates at Cape Matapan (called Tainaron by the Ancient Greeks), the southernmost point of continental Greece.

Administration of the peninsula is now split between modern Laconia (East Mani) and Messenia (West Mani). In ancient times, all of Mani was considered part of Laconia, a region dominated by the powerful city-state, or polis, of Sparta.

Lying due south of Sparta (Spárti), Mani is the central of three peninsulas extending into the Mediterranean Sea

The historical region and cultural area is frequently referred to in English-language sources as "the Mani", "the Mani Peninsula", or simply "Mani". These are long-used conventional names for the area that overlap with—but are semantically distinct from—the names of its two constituent municipalities of East Mani and West Mani; both municipalities were established in 2011 following a nationwide administrative reform.

The Mani Peninsula is the southern extension of the Taygetus mountain range. It is about 28 miles (45 km) long with a rocky, rugged, interior bordered by scenic coastlines. Cities of the Mani Peninsula include Areopoli in the northwest and Gytheio (ancient Gythion or Gythium) in the northeast.

The demonym for inhabitants of Mani is Maniots (Greek: Mανιάτες, romanized: Maniátes). A Maniot tradition claims that they are descended from ancient Spartans and refugees of the early Roman period. They maintain a unique heritage among the regional subcultures of their fellow Greeks.

The Peloponnese from ISS, 2014; Mani is the middle peninsula at the south of the Peloponnese.

The Mani Peninsula was known as Maina Polypyrgos ("Many-Towered Maina") for its numerous tower-houses. From 1978 onwards, the Greek state successively decreed many settlements "traditional", setting restrictions on construction. In 2003, the whole peninsula was designated a "cultural complex of international importance". Notable sites in Mani include the ruins of the ancient Temple of Poseidon at Cape Matapan and the Diros Caves with their prehistoric remains near Pyrgos Dirou outside Gytheio. The peninsula also played a key role in the Greek War of Independence that began in 1821.

Etymology

There is no agreement on the origin of the word "Mani". The region's medieval name was Maini, however this is itself of uncertain origin. Two early 10th-century Byzantine emperors refer to the region by the name "Maini" in their writing. It was first mentioned in the Tactica of Emperor Leo VI the Wise (c. 900), and was mentioned again in the De Administrando Imperio of Emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959). In 1205, the French established a Crusader state on the Peloponnese in the aftermath of the sack of Constantinople. They built a castle on the Mani in 1250 and called it the Grand Magne, presumably naming it after the region. Still, folk traditions claim that the Mani is named for the "Frankish" castle of Grand Magne and not the reverse.

Geography

The Mani is a peninsula with Cape Matapan forming its southern tip. Its northern delineation from the Peloponnese mainland is not precisely defined; maps of the Mani frequently show an area just south of Kalamata as its westernmost point, and Gytheio as its easternmost point, with Mount Taygetus (locally called Profitis Ilias 'Prophet Elijah') in the interior.

Administration

Administrative map of East and West Mani, 2012

The Mani peninsula is divided into the administrative municipalities of East Mani (Ανατολική Μάνη, Anatolikí Máni) and West Mani (Δυτική Μάνη, Dytikí Máni), in the modern regional units of Laconia and Messenia, respectively.

Regional divisions

Mani has traditionally been divided into three regions:

• Exo Mani (Έξω Μάνη) or Outer Mani to the northwest, corresponding approximately to West Mani
• Kato Mani (Κάτω Μάνη) or Lower Mani to the east, corresponding approximately to northern East Mani
• Mesa Mani (Μέσα Μάνη) or Inner Mani to the southwest, corresponding approximately to southern East Mani

The traditional regions of Mani: Exo (Outer); Kato (Lower); Mesa (Inner)

The island of Cranae is located just off the coast of Gytheio in Lower Mani. A causeway linking the island to the mainland was built in 1898.

Geology

Main article: Taygetus § Geology

The massif of the Taygetus range is about 100 km (62 mi) long, extending from the center of the Peloponnese to Cape Matapan.

Profitis Ilias is the tallest mountain in the Peloponnese, with a summit of 2,405 m (7,890 ft); it is likely the classical "Mount Taléton" mentioned by Pausanias.

Climate

The Mani Peninsula, like much of southern Greece, has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa). The Messenian, or Outer, Mani receives somewhat more rainfall than the Laconian, or Inner and Lower, Mani (see rain shadow) and as a consequence is more agriculturally productive. Locals call the Messenian Mani aposkiaderi 'shady' and the Laconian prosiliaki 'sunny'.

Transport

See also: Highways in Greece

Because its terrain is mountainous and not easily accessible, many Maniot villages could be reached only by sea until relatively recent times. Today, a narrow and winding road traverses the perimeter, linking Mani with the mainland through Kardamyli and Areopoli on the west coast, to Cape Matapan in the south, and Gytheio in the northeast. Another road connects Tripoli in the central Peloponnese to Gerolimenas near Cape Matapan; public buses of the Piraeus–Mani line use this route. Greek National Road 39 (Greek: Εθνική Οδός 39, EO39) connects Tripoli with Gytheio via Sparta.

The E4 European long distance walking path traverses the Taygetus to a land terminus in Gytheio, connecting the Peloponnese to the Spanish city of Tarifa. The path continues to Crete by ferry crossing.

Towns and settlements

Modern

• Agios Nikolaos
• Altomira
• Areopoli
• Avia
• Doloi
• Drosopigi
• Dryalos
• Gerolimenas
• Gytheio
• Kalyvia
• Kampos
• Kardamyli
• Kastania
• Kelefa
• Kipoula
• Koita
• Mavrovouni
• Megali Mantineia
• Myrsini
• Oitylo
• Parasyros
• Petrovouni
• Porto Kagio
• Pyrgos Dirou
• Skoutari
• Sminos
• Stoupa
• Vatheia

Ancient

• Asine
• Caenepolis (or Kainepolis)
• Gerenia
• Gytheion, Gythium (modern Gytheio)
• Hippola
• Kardamyli
• Las
• Leuctra
• Messa
• Oetylus (modern Oitylo)
• Psamathus
• Pyrrichos
• Taenarum
• Teuthrone
• Thalamae

Notable sites

• Alepotrypa Cave
• Apidima Cave
• Cape Matapan
• Grand Magne
• Monastery of Panayia Yiatrissa
• Mount Taygetus (Profitis Ilias)
• Passavas
• Porto Kagio
• Temple of Poseidon at Tainaron
• Tigani
• Vyros Gorge
• Zarnata

Prehistory

Further information: Prehistory of Southeast Europe

Mani and the entire Peloponnese have been inhabited since prehistoric times. The Apidima Cave on the western side of the peninsula has yielded Neanderthal and Homo sapiens fossils from the Palaeolithic era. As of 2019, a Homo sapiens skull recovered from Apidima, dating to at least 210,000 years before present, is the earliest evidence of modern humans in Europe. Neolithic remains have also been found along Mani's coast in the Alepotrypa Cave and among other sites.

Ancient Mani

Map of ancient Laconia and the Mani Peninsula from Pausanias's Description of Greece translated by James George Frazer in 1898, British Library

Mycenaean

The Mycenaean civilization (1900–1100 BCE) dominated Mani and the Peloponnese in the Bronze Age. Mani flourished under the Mycenaeans. A temple dedicated to Apollo was erected at Cape Matapan. It was later re-dedicated as the Temple of Poseidon. Homer refers to a number of towns in the Mani region. The "Catalogue of Ships" in the Iliad names Messa, Oetylus, Kardamyli, Gerenia, Teuthrone, and Las. The region featured in many myths and legends. One tradition told of a cave near Cape Matapan that led to Hades.

In the early Greek Dark Ages (c. 1050–800 BCE), Phoenicians arrived in Mani and are thought to have established a colony at Gytheion (modern Gytheio, called Gythium by the Romans). The colony collected the murex sea snail which was plentiful in the Laconian Gulf and processed into Tyrian purple, a valuable dye.

The area around Mani came under the rule of the powerful city-state Sparta with the onset of the Archaic Period  (800–480 BCE). Under Spartan rule, inhabitants of Mani were classified as belonging to the Perioeci social caste.

Classical

Tainaron (Cape Matapan) became an important center for mercenary traffic in Classical times (c. 510–323 BCE), Gytheio, only 27 km (17 mi) away from the city of Sparta, became Mani's—and Sparta's—major port. The coveted port was captured by Athenian forces in 455 BCE, during the First Peloponnesian War, a power struggle between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies fought in part to establish supremacy over the Peloponnese.

The damaged city and docks were rebuilt; by the end of the war, Gytheio was the main shipyard for the new Spartan fleet. Spartan hegemony in the Peloponnese lasted until 371 BCE, when the Thebans under Epaminondas defeated Sparta at Leuctra.

Hellenistic

Throughout much of the Hellenistic period (323–30 BCE) the Mani Peninsula remained subject to Spartan hegemony. This era proved turbulent for Mani and Laconia, marked by frequent military engagements and shifting political allegiances for Mani.

Competition between rival powers resulted in a series of wars that eventually drew in the Kingdom of Macedon and the expanding Roman Republic: the Cleomenean War (229–222 BCE); the Social War (220–217 BCE); the Macedonian Wars (214–148 BCE); and the Laconian War (195 BCE). Gytheio, as a major port, remained an especially sought-after prize for all parties.

In 219–218 BCE, Philip V of Macedon invaded Mani as part of his campaign in Laconia. His forces besieged Gytheio and Las but failed to capture them.

Nabis ascended to the Spartan throne in 207 BCE; he expanded Gytheio, transforming it into a vital port and naval arsenal. Rome, allied with the Achaean League—a confederation of Sparta's Greek rivals—captured Gytheio after a prolonged siege in 195 BCE; Sparta was the allies' next target. A peace treaty granted autonomy to Mani's coastal cities. These cities formed the League of Free Laconians, with Gytheio as its capital under the Achaean League's protection.

Determined to retake the vital port of Gytheio, Nabis advanced on the city in 192 BCE. A Roman fleet soon recaptured Gytheio. Nabis was murdered, and the polis Sparta was absorbed by the Achaean League. The Spartans, still seeking access to a port, then seized Las, prompting the Achaeans to retaliate by seizing Sparta outright.

Roman

The Romans emerged as the champion of the destructive and costly wars. With their victory at the Battle of Corinth in 146 BCE, all of Greece became a Roman possession. The Peloponnese was administered as the province of Achaia. Rome did allow the League of Free Laconians, which included Mani, to maintain its autonomy. In 375 CE, a massive earthquake devastated Gythium. Most of the ruins of ancient Gythium are now submerged in the Laconian Gulf.

In 395 CE, mainland Greece and the Peloponnese became part of the Byzantine Empire (formally the East Roman Empire), bringing over 500 years of centralized rule from Rome to an end. Mani would nominally be administered by the new government in Constantinople for over a millennium, with periodic interruptions due to unrest and foreign invasions. Mani's remoteness would limit Constantinople's influence.

Medieval Mani

Byzantine

The Mani Peninsula had a turbulent history during the long period of Byzantine Greece (395–1453), as various powers fought over it and the whole Peloponnese—known throughout much of this time as "Morea". Between 395 and 397, the Visigoths under Alaric I ravaged the Peloponnese and destroyed what was left of Gythium. In 468, the Vandals under Gaiseric invaded Mani as a first step in their planned conquest of the Peloponnese, but were thwarted by a Maniot counter-attack at Caenepolis near Cape Matapan. Some historians posit that in the 590s, groups of Pannonian Avars and Slavs attacked and occupied most of the western Peloponnese; this claim is not universally accepted.

Over the subsequent centuries, Mani was fought over by the Byzantines, the French, and the Saracens. In the wake of the Early Muslim conquests, Arabs captured the island of Crete in the 820s and established an emirate there. Arab raiders then began to attack Mani and the coastal cities of Peloponnese. The Byzantines retook Crete in 961.

Christianization of Mani

Christianity was firmly established on mainland Greece, the Balkans, and Anatolia—the core territories of the Byzantine Empire—by as early as the 5th century. The Peloponnese, and Mani in particular, were quite late to adopt Christianity relative to these core regions, likely owing, at least in part, to the peninsula's isolation and foreboding terrain.

The monk Nikon the Metanoeite (Greek: Νίκων ὁ Μετανοείτε) (c. 930 – 998) was commissioned by the Greek Orthodox Church to Christianize the areas of Mani and Tsakonia still practicing paganism. It was only after his efforts that most traces of the Ancient Greek religion and its traditions were eradicated from Mani. Nikon was canonized by the Greek Orthodox Church, and as St. Nikon became patron of Mani and Sparta.

Constantine VII in his De Administrando Imperio (c. 952) describes the Maniots thus:

Be it known that the inhabitants of Castle Maina are not from the race of aforesaid Slavs (Melingoi and Ezeritai dwelling on the Taygetus) but from the older Rhomaioi, who up to the present time are termed "Hellenes" by the local inhabitants on account of their being in olden times idolaters and worshippers of idols like the ancient Greeks, and who were baptized and became Christians in the reign of the glorious Basil [Emperor Basil I (r. 867 – 886)]. The place in which they live is waterless and inaccessible, but has olives from which they gain some consolation.

Patrick Leigh Fermor wrote of the Maniots and the tradition of their conversion:

Sealed off from outside influences by their mountains, the semi-troglodytic Maniots themselves were the last of the Greeks to be converted. They only abandoned the old religion of Greece towards the end of the ninth century. It is surprising to remember that this peninsula of rock, so near the heart of the Levant from which Christianity springs, should have been baptised three whole centuries after the arrival of St. Augustine [of Canterbury] in far-away Kent.

Crusader states

Following the Fourth Crusade and sack of Constantinople in 1204, the Mani Peninsula with Laconia and much of the Peloponnese became part of a "Frankish" crusader state called the Principality of Achaea (1205–1432), primarily under French rule. In 1210, the Baron John of Nully (French: Jean de Neuilly or Nully) began to rule Mani as Hereditary Marshal. He built the castle of Passavas on the ruins of Las, in part to subdue the recalcitrant Maniots. The castle controlled an important mountain pass between Gytheio and Oitylo. The castle would become the seat of the short-lived Barony of Passavant, a fiefdom of the Principality of Achaea.

The Slavic Melingoi tribe then began raiding Laconia from the west, while in the east native Tsakonians agitated against French rule. In 1249, the new prince of Achaea, William II of Villehardouin, invested on the fortress of Monemvasia to keep the Tsakonians at bay. To contain the Melingoi, he built a castle at Mystras, in the Taygetus, overlooking Sparta. And—according to the 14th-century Chronicle of Morea—he built the castle of Grand Magne to stop Maniot raids. The castle was described as "at a fearful cliff with a headland above", and has been associated with the name "Mani" and variations since its construction. Despite its notoriety, the site has never been positively located; one possibility is Tigani.

By the mid-13th century, the resurgence of the Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty had shifted the balance of power in Greece. In the 1250s the Pope appointed a "Latin," i.e., Roman Catholic, bishop to Mani, provoking resentment among the Orthodox Greeks, who soon removed him. In 1259, Byzantine forces captured Prince William at the Battle of Pelagonia. In 1262, William surrendered a number of fortresses to pay his own ransom; one of these was the castle of Grand Magne.

Byzantine Despotate of the Morea

Maniots had maintained a significant degree of autonomy during the Principality of Achaea's existence. From the mid-14th to mid-15th centuries, control over the region gradually shifted to a semi-autonomous province of the Byzantine Empire called the Despotate of the Morea (1349–1460), when successive despotes governed the province.

Ottoman rule

The Ottoman Empire succeeded in capturing Constantinople in 1453; by 1460 the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Morea. According to local tradition, members of noble Byzantine families such as the Palaiologoi fled to Mani following the fall of Constantinople.

The Ottomans remained nominal rulers of Mani until the outbreak of the Greek revolution in 1821, with a brief interlude of Venetian control. Mani was first administered by the Ottoman Eyalet of the Archipelago and then by the Morea Eyalet. Due to its remoteness and isolation, Mani in particular retained a degree of autonomy not present in other regions of Ottoman Greece.

Ottoman-Venetian wars in the Morea

The Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice frequently clashed over control of the Morea, with the Mani Peninsula emerging as a major strategic site throughout the long series of wars that began in 1396—some sixty years before the Ottoman conquest of Greece—and only ended in 1718.

By 1460, with the Ottomans newly in control of the Morea, there were local Greek lords who cooperated with their new rulers. Many others however, including Krokodeilos Kladas (1425–1490) and his brother Epifanisoon, organized bands of warriors called stratioti to fight the Ottoman Empire; Venice provided aid and support to the stratioti in their rebellion.

A significant shift in the balance of power occurred with the Treaty of Constantinople, the Venetian-Ottoman peace settlement of 1479. Despite the rebels' successes, the treaty limited their territorial boundaries to the pre-1463 status quo ante bellum. This meant that lands held by Greek rebels under Venetian protection returned to Ottoman control, which left the stratioti and their families in a precarious position. Many stratioti leaders moved to Venetian-held strongholds like Koroni in Messenia.

Tensions reignited in only a few years. By the early 1480s, Krokodeilos Kladas led stratioti from the Venetian territories in a revolt against the Ottomans in the Mani Peninsula. This rebellion caused a diplomatic crisis between Venice and the Ottoman Empire, as the Ottomans held Venice responsible for the damages caused by the Greek insurgents. Hoping to avoid another costly war, both the Venetians and the Ottomans sides put a bounty on Kladas. The rebellion was initially successful, but an overwhelming Ottoman force eventually suppressed it, and Kladas was forced to flee to by sea.

By 1568, the Ottomans had built a castle called Porto Kagio on the site of the ancient harbor of Psamathus, the base for their galley patrols in the Kythira Strait between the Peloponnese and the island of Crete. The Venetians attacked Porto Kagio in 1570 and forced the Ottomans to surrender and abandon it.

1612 Ottoman incursion

In 1612, the Mani Peninsula became the focal point of another Ottoman military incursion, this time triggered by the actions of Charles Gonzaga (1580–1637), who claimed descent from the Palaiologos dynasty. Charles sought to establish a new Byzantine state with himself as emperor in Constantinople, viewing his endeavor as a new crusade. The Maniots caught wind of Charles's ambitions and secretly allied themselves with him, addressing him as "King Constantine Palaeologus."

Upon discovering Charles's plans and the Maniots' support, the Ottoman authorities launched a large-scale punitive expedition into the region. A force of 20,000 soldiers and 70 ships was deployed to invade Mani. The Ottomans devastated the peninsula and imposed punitive taxes on the Greeks. The Maniots' resistance remained a persistent challenge to Ottoman authority.

Charles's further attempts at his crusade failed and he later became Duke of Mantua and Montferrat. His failure left the Maniots to continue their struggle against the Ottomans without external support.

Maniot piracy

Maniot piracy was observed by the Turkish explorer Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682), who visited Mani with an Ottoman expedition. He said of the Maniots, "they capture the Frank and sell him to us, they capture us and sell us to the Franks."

Corsican migrations

In October 1675, approximately 730 Maniots, fleeing Ottoman rule, embarked from Oitylo on a Genoese ship for Corsica, which was then a Genoese territory. After a short stop in Genoa, they arrived in Corsica in March 1676, eventually settling in the area of Paomia (modern Cargèse). These Greek settlers, led by the Stephanopoulos family and accompanied by clergy, were the first of a significant Greek migration to the island.

Beys of Mani

In the late 17th century, the Ottomans began appointing Maniot chieftains, deemed beys, to rule Mani on their behalf. The rule of the Beys of Mani concluded with the onset of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.

The first such bey was the Maniot Limberakis Gerakaris (c. 1644 – 1710), installed c. 1669. A former galley oarsman in the Venetian fleet who became a pirate, Limberakis was captured by the Ottomans and condemned to death. The grand vizier pardoned him on condition that he manage Mani as an Ottoman vassalage or client state.

Limberakis accepted the offer and used his new position to pursue his standing feud with the powerful Maniot Stephanopouloi family. His forces besieged the compound of the Stephanopouloi at Oitylo, captured 35 of them, and had them all executed. During his twenty-year reign, Limberakis shifted allegiances between the Republic of Venice and the Ottomans.

Limberakis eventually fell out of favor with the Turks for his piracy and he was captured by Ottoman forces in 1682. With the Ottomans preoccupied with their wars against the Habsburgs, the Venetians saw an opportunity to seize Turkish-held territories in the Peloponnese, sparking the Morean War of 1684–1699.

Morean War and Venetian withdrawal

The Morean War of 1684–1699 was the sixth Ottoman–Venetian war and part of the wider conflict known as the "Great Turkish War". Military operations ranged across southeastern Europe and the Aegean; the war's major campaign was the Venetian conquest of the Morea.

The Battle of Kalamata in 1685 ended with a Venetian victory. Venice went on to conquer the Mani Peninsula, solidifying their foothold in the southern Morea. Venice's expansionist revival would be short-lived, as its gains were reversed by the Ottomans in 1718.

Russian influence and the Orlov revolt

The Ottomans faced a rival to the east in the expanding Tsardom of Russia and subsequent Russian Empire, which fueled twelve Russo-Turkish Wars that began in 1568 and continued intermittently until 1918, and which, in the 18th century, spilled over into the Mani Peninsula.

By the late 17th century, Russian influence had begun to spread among Maniots and other Christians under Ottoman rule. Prophecies began circulating in the 1690s, at the height of the third Russo–Turkish War, of a "blonde nation" that would destroy the Ottoman Empire. This hope was fueled by the war and by Greek Orthodox patriarchs who sought Russian support to regain privileges lost in an earlier Franco-Ottoman alliance. The presence of a Russian ambassador at the Ottoman court since 1700 allowed direct contacts between Russian officials and Ottoman Christians who began to seek refuge in Russia. These included Greek refugees who established communities in Russia.

Wishing to weaken the Ottoman Empire and establish a pro-Russian independent Greek state, Russia sent emissaries to Mani in the mid-1760s to enlist local military leaders; at the same time, notable Greeks approached various Russian agents to discuss plans for the liberation of Greece. Russian artillery captain Grigorios Papadopoulos (or Georgios Papasoglu), a Greek, was dispatched to Mani. Georgios Papazolis, another Greek officer of the Russian army, cooperated with the brothers Grigory Orlov and Count Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov in preparations for a Greek insurrection in the Morea during the Russian military operations against the Ottoman Empire in 1769. The organization of the Greek rebellion was charged to the Orlov brothers, with Alexei as fleet commander.

With the onset of the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 (the sixth conflict between the empires), Russia saw an opportunity to seize territory from its Ottoman rival. The Russians, aiming to weaken the Ottomans from within, planned to incite Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire to revolt, and sent agents to strategic points in the Balkans and Greece, including the Morea. Another brother, Fyodor Orlov, was sent to coordinate rebels in Morea, deemed the most important strategic area of mainland Greece due to its ports (Russia's ambitions would become formulated in the "Greek Plan" of the 1780s). Greeks prepared to revolt with the expectation of massive Russian aid.

Russia assembled a war fleet under Alexei Orlov, which departed in August 1769 and arrived in Mani in February 1770. This expedition of four ships, a few hundred soldiers, and inadequate arms supplies, greatly disappointed the Greeks. Nevertheless, Orlov's arrival in Mani sparked a Maniot uprising, the Orlov revolt.

An initial force of 1,400 men was raised. The Maniot forces were organized into "legions" with the help of Russian officers. The Greek rebels were initially successful, defeating Ottoman forces in Laconia and eastern Messenia. They captured the fortress of Mystras and established a local government there, but the revolt failed to spread effectively.

The Ottomans responded with an invasion force, and by June 1770 the Orlov revolt was suppressed, three months after it had begun. The Ottomans unleashed Muslim Albanian mercenaries, termed "Turco-Albanians", who pillaged the Peloponnese and massacred Greek civilians. Ultimately, the limited Russian manpower and a lack of unified Maniot support led to the uprising's failure. The Orlov revolt was a major precursor to the Greek War of Independence, which erupted fifty years later, in 1821.

French influence and Ottoman invasions of Mani

After the failed Orlov revolt of 1770, the Ottomans sought to control Mani through the appointment of a new bey. Tzanetos Grigorakis, a member of the powerful Grigorakis clan, accepted the position in 1784. However, by 1798, the Ottomans learned he was conspiring with French agents sent by Napoleon to orchestrate a revolt. This led to his deposition and proscription, but he continued to cause trouble from his fortified island home on Marathonisi (modern Cranae).

In 1803, the Ottomans discovered that Grigorakis had received a shipment of French weapons and resolved to eliminate him. In the Ottoman invasion of Mani in 1803, the Kapudan Pasha, a high-ranking Ottoman naval commander, led a large force of Turco-Albanians into Mani. The Ottoman army set up a base at Gytheio, directly across from Marathonisi.

With his sons and loyal followers, Grigorakis was well-equipped with the new French weapons and prepared for a siege. The Ottoman fleet blockaded the island, and their artillery inflicted significant damage. After a brief siege, Grigorakis and his men slipped out of the fort during the night and fled inland. With their target gone, the Ottomans abandoned the siege. Grigorakis continued to organize raids until his death in 1808.

During the 1803 invasion, the Ottomans removed bey Panagiotis Koumoundouros for allowing Zanetos Grigorakis to receive weapons from the French and replaced him with Antony Grigorakis, a cousin of Zanetos. A Turkish fleet was unable to capture Cranae and was soon forced to retreat. The Ottomans attempted to invade Mani again in 1807 and in 1815, but were repulsed each time.

In 1810, bey Grigorakis resigned in favor of his son-in-law, Konstantis Zervakos. The Maniots were hostile to Zervakos and deposed him. Maniot clans in Gytheio elected Theodoros Zanerakos, nephew of Zanetos Grigorakis, as their leader. In the midst of the 1815 Ottoman invasion of Mani, Theodoros Zanerakos was removed from power that year and replaced by Petros Mavromichalis, also known as "Petrobey".

Petros Mavromichalis was the first Maniot bey from Mesa Mani (Inner Mani). In 1819, Mavromichalis joined the Filiki Eteria, a 19th-century Greek secret society opposing Ottoman rule, which by 1821 was prepared to revolt. As Istanbul's power had been weakening, the local klephts—bandits who fought the Ottomans—made their strongholds in the rugged mountains of Mani.

Ottoman control over Greece ended in 1821 with the start of the Greek War of Independence. The Mani Peninsula played a significant role in the war.

Modern Greece

Greek War of Independence

Main article: Greek War of Independence

On 17 March 1821, 12,000 Maniots gathered in Areopoli and declared war against the Ottoman Empire, an act which preceded the rest of Greece by about a week. The secret society of Filiki Eteria had sent representatives to organize the Maniots. From his base in Kalamata, Maniot leader Petros Mavromichalis titled himself "Commander in Chief of the Spartan Forces" and wrote letters to European heads of state announcing the Greek revolution. He then directed Maniot forces to attack Turkish positions in Messenia and Laconia. On 12 September 1821, after a long siege, Maniot soldiers joined Theodoros Kolokotronis's forces in capturing Tripolitsa, the Turkish capital of the Peloponnese.

Egyptian Invasion of Mani

In 1825, with the Greek revolution faltering, Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II enlisted the help of Muhammad Ali of Egypt to subdue the rebellion. Ali's son, Ibrahim Pasha, landed at Methoni with a large force and quickly recaptured much of the Peloponnese, but was unable to take Nafplio and the Mani Peninsula.

Ibrahim's forces launched a two-pronged attack on Mani in the joint Ottoman–Egyptian invasion of Mani in 1826. At the Battle of Verga, 2,000 Maniots and 500 Greek refugees successfully defended a fortified wall, repelling the Egyptian advance. Simultaneously, a smaller Egyptian fleet attempted a surprise landing at Areopoli to disrupt Maniot communication lines, where they were met by 300 Maniot defenders. The Egyptians suffered heavy losses and were forced to retreat, ruining Ibrahim's invasion plan. The women who fought in this battle were later dubbed the "Amazons of Diros".

Republic and regency

Map of Mani published in 1926

Assassination of Ioannis Kapodistrias

After Ioannis Kapodistrias became the first governor of Greece in 1831, he came into conflict with the Mavromichalis clan, as the Maniots refused to pay taxes to the new government. Kapodistrias arrested and imprisoned Tzanis Mavromichalis, the brother of Maniot leader Petros Mavromichalis. Subsequently, Petros was also arrested and charged with treason.

On 27 September 1831, Petros's brother Konstantinos Mavromichalis and son Georgios Mavromichalis assassinated Kapodistrias as he was entering a church in Nafplio, in retaliation for Petros's arrest. Konstantinos was killed by Kapodistrias' bodyguard, and Georgios was later executed.

Monarchy and subjugation

In 1833, Otto von Wittelsbach was appointed King of Greece. His Council of Regency immediately released Petros and Tzanis Mavromichalis from prison. The Council then took action to subdue the Maniots and dismantle their defensive towers. In 1870, a Maniot vendetta was halted by the efforts of a regular army with artillery support.

Twentieth century

The violence of World War II and the Greek Civil War that followed engulfed the Peloponnese. Nazi Germany attacked Greece in order to support the Italians. The Greeks were forced to retreat, and Mani became a destination for refugees. During April 1941, the British started evacuating their troops from Porto Kagio. By the end of the month, Italian and German troops had occupied Greece.

During the Axis occupation, Mani became a stronghold for the Security Battalions, Greek collaborationist paramilitary groups formed to support the German and Italian occupation troops. The Greek Civil War began in 1944, at the end of the occupation. Mani was devastated by the wars, and many of its young people left for Athens or to join the Greek diaspora in the United States and Australia.

Mani's population declined and continued to fall as emigration continued beyond the post-war decades. Mani was considered a backwater until the 1970s, when the government started to build roads which made the peninsula more accessible by car. A tourist industry took hold, with ensuing population and economic growth.

Recent history

The 2007 Greek forest fires caused significant damage in Mani, particularly around Skoutari.

The municipalities of East Mani and West Mani were established in 2011 by the Kallikratis Programme, a sweeping administrative reform that resulted in mergers of regional and local governments in the Peloponnese and across Greece.

Economy

Mani's economy is heavily oriented towards agriculture, tourism, and maritime activity.

There is little information on the economy of Mani during the early stages of Ottoman dominance of Greece, and what is known of the economy in the 17th and 18th centuries is from foreign observers. In Outer Mani, olives were grown in great numbers, but it was not until the 18th century that olives were widely spread in Inner Mani. Exports from Outer Mani also included pine for ships' masts, turpentine, animal hides, tanning agents, and prinokoki, a crimson-colored dye. The northwest of Inner Mani was rich in mulberry plants and honey.

Piracy was also an important part of the Maniot economy.

Culture

Maniots maintain a unique heritage among the regional subcultures of their fellow Greeks. By tradition, they claim descent from the ancient Spartans, and to be heirs to Sparta's militaristic culture.

Architecture

Mani is known for its unique tower houses called pyrghóspita. These towers were usually surrounded by other houses, family churches, and cemeteries, forming a fortified complex known as a xemóni which served as a clan-based compound.

Cuisine

The distinctive ingredients of traditional Maniot cuisine include olive oil and olives; citrus fruits, especially oranges; horta (χόρτα 'wild greens') and aromatic herbs; lupins, broad beans, and lentils; local cheeses such as the white, semi-hard sfela (σφέλα); cheese pies and other savoury pies; lalangia (λαλάγγια 'fried dough strips'); diples (δίπλες 'honey rolls'); and pork products such as syglino (σύγκλινο 'salted pork preserved in pork fat').

Dialect

Maniots have historically spoken a variety of Modern Greek defined as either a "dialect" or an "idiom".

A map showing the distribution of Maniot Greek

Regional linguistic peculiarities exist within Maniot Greek, particularly in surnames. Family names in Messenian Mani typically end in -éas, while those in Laconian Mani end in -ákos. There is also the -óggonas ending, a corruption of éggonos 'grandson'.

Gallery

• 
  Pyrghóspita (tower houses) in Skoutari
• 
  Pyrghóspita in Vatheia
• 
  Port of Gytheio
• 
  Oitylo village
• 
  Diros Caves near Pyrgos Dirou
• 
  Port of Areopoli
• 
  The Church of St. Spyridon in Kardamyli
• 
  Saints Theodoroi Church in Kampos
• 
  1821 banner reading "Victory or Death"

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Further reading

• Eisner, Robert (1993). Travelers to an Antique Land: The History and Literature of Travel to Greece. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08220-5.
• Gundogdu, Birol (2012). Ottoman Constructions of the Morea Rebellion, 1770s: A Comprehensive Study of Ottoman Attitudes to the Greek Uprising (PhD, Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations thesis). University of Toronto. Retrieved 12 September 2025.
• Howarth, David Armine (1976). The Greek Adventure: Lord Byron and Other Eccentrics in the War of Independence. Atheneum. ISBN 0-689-10653-X.
• Lefteris, Alexakis. "Form and evolution of Mani surnames". mani.org.gr (in Greek). Retrieved 19 July 2025.
• Nicholas, Nick (2006). "Negotiating a Greco-Corsican Identity". Journal of Modern Greek Studies. 24: 91–133. doi:10.1353/mgs.2006.0009. S2CID 145285702.
• Papadopoulos, Stefanos (1975). "Η Ελληνική Επανάσταση του 1770 και ο αντίκτυπός της στις ελληνικές χώρες" [The Greek Revolution of 1770 and its impact on the Greek lands]. In Christopoulos, Georgios A. & Bastias, Ioannis K. (eds.). Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους, Τόμος ΙΑ΄: Ο Ελληνισμός υπό ξένη κυριαρχία (περίοδος 1669 - 1821), Τουρκοκρατία - Λατινοκρατία [History of the Greek Nation, Volume XI: Hellenism under Foreign Rule (Period 1669 - 1821), Turkocracy – Latinocracy] (in Greek). Athens: Ekdotiki Athinon. pp. 58–85. ISBN 978-960-213-100-8.
• Roessel, David (2001). In Byron's Shadow: Modern Greece in the English and American Imagination. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198032908.
• Stamatoyannopoulos, George; Bose, Aritra; Teodosiadis, Athanasios; Tsetsos, Fotis; Plantinga, Anna; Psatha, Nikoletta; Zogas, Nikos; Yannaki, Evangelia; Zalloua, Pierre; Kidd, Kenneth K.; Browning, Brian L. (8 March 2017). "Genetics of the Peloponnesean populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval Peloponnesean Greeks". European Journal of Human Genetics. 25 (5): 637–645. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2017.18. ISSN 1476-5438. PMC 5437898. PMID 28272534.
• Stavrianos, Leften Stavros (2000). The Balkans Since 1453. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 187–190, 195. ISBN 978-1-85065-551-0.
• Trudgill, Peter (2003). "Modern Greek Dialects: A Preliminary Classification". Journal of Greek Linguistics. 4: 45–63. doi:10.1075/jgl.4.04tru. S2CID 145744857.
• "Vendetta". mani.org.gr. Retrieved 19 July 2025.
• "1906: I ematiri venteta anamesa se Maniates ke Kritikous" 1906: Η αιματηρή βεντέτα ανάμεσα σε Μανιάτες και Κρητικούς [1906: The bloody feud between Maniots and Cretans]. cretapost.gr (in Greek). 2018-09-14. Archived from the original on 2018-07-02. Retrieved 2025-07-19.

External links

• "Discover Mani" by T. Adamakopoulos. 2014.
• "Maina and Mainotes" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
• A guide and history of Mani by John Chapman
• Paintings and drawings of Mani by the German painter and inhabitant of Gerolimenas, Karl-Heinz Herrfurth