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Naqada I - Wikipedia Jump to content

Naqada I

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Naqada I
(3900—3500 BC)
Naqada I ivory statuettes of men with penile sheathes (El Mahasna left, and Naqada right, c.3900-3600 BCE).[1]
Datesc.3750 BC — c.3500 BC.[2][3]
Major sitesEl-Amrah, Naqada
Preceded byTasian culture, Badari culture, Merimde culture
Followed byNaqada II (Gerzeh culture)

The Naqada I culture, originally called the Amratian culture, was the first Pre-dynastic archaeological culture of prehistoric Egypt, centering on Upper Egypt.[4] Depending on the sources, it lasted approximately from 3,750 to 3,500 BC,[2] from c. 4,000/3,900 to c. 3,600 BC,[5][6] or from 4,000 to 3,500 BC.[7] It corresponds to the original Flinders Petrie "Sequence Dates" SD 31–37.[8]

All Nadaqa I sites are located in Upper Egypt, ranging from Matmar in the north, to Kubaniya and Khor Bahan in the south.[9] The Amratian/ Naqada I culture is broadly similar to the previous Badarian culture, and may to some extent be considered as a later variation, characterized with more diversity in the types of graves, and therefore the appearance of a level of social hierarchy.[9]

Overview

[edit]

The Amratian culture is named after the archaeological site of el-Amrah, located around 120 km (75 mi) south of Badari in Upper Egypt. El-Amrah was the first site where this culture group was found without being mingled with the later Gerzeh culture (Naqada II). However, this period is better attested at the Nagada site, thus it also is referred to as the Naqada I culture.[10]

Naqada I site are only known from the area of Upper Egypt, with sites ranging from Badari in the north to a few sites in Aswan in Lower Nubia.[11]

Pottery types

[edit]

The Naqada I period corresponds to the maximum development of black-topped red ware, as well as wares with painted white motifs on a polished red background.[12]

Naqada I pottery, per Flinders Petrie

Naqada I pottery mainly used one type of clay: a grey clay from the alluvium of the Nile, which is rich in ferrous oxide and becomes red to brown upon firing in an oxidizing environment.[13]

Naqada I had four types of potteries, which were categorized chronologically by Petrie from SD ("Sequence Date") 30 to 37:[14][13]

Black-topped pottery ("B-ware")

[edit]
Black-top red ware. Naqada I-first half of Naqada II. 3800-3400 BCE. Louvre Museum
Main article: Black-topped pottery

Red-bodied black-topped pottery, already found in the Badarian culture was continuously produced. The red color of the body was a natural result of firing Nilotic clay rich in ferrous oxide, but the black top was obtained by exposing the top portion of the vessels to dense black soot.[15][16] Although mostly characteristic of Naqada I, this type continued to be produced throughout the whole Naqada period.

  • Black-topped Red Ware beaker
    Black-topped Red Ware beaker
  • Ovoid Naqada I (Amratian) black-topped terracotta vase, c. 3800–3500 BC
    Ovoid Naqada I (Amratian) black-topped terracotta vase, c. 3800–3500 BC
  • Black-topped red ware jar
    Black-topped red ware jar
  • A "fancy" (Type "F") shape: double vase. Louvre Museum.[17]
    A "fancy" (Type "F") shape: double vase. Louvre Museum.[17]

Cross-lined pottery (C-ware)

[edit]
C-ware, Naqada I

White cross-lined pottery (C-ware) were a type of painted pottery essentially specific to Naqada I. Compared to the total number of ceramics produced, only very few of them were painted. The painting technique too was different from Naqada II, in that white or cream white painting was used over a red background, while Naqada II used brown painting over cream-bodied pottery.[18] These vessels were found in graves, but were also used in daily life.[18] In addition to the different types of ceramic base and the different colors used for painting, the types of drawings and well as their style also differ widely between Naqada I and Naqada II.[18] White cross-lined pottery on a red background often used close parallel white lines being crossed by another set of close parallel white lines.[15] Overall, the layout of drawing in C-ware was more free than that of the Naqada D-ware, a possible consequence of increased hierarchy and control in society.[18]

C-ware covers a period from 3,900 to 3,650 BC, and was produced from Naqada IA to Naqada IIA and Naqada IIB, before vanishing.[18] Some paintings also depict a triumphant warrior with his captives, a likely prototype of later scenes of pharaohs smiting their enemies.[19]

Geometric symbols and natural scenes
[edit]
  • Red pottery bowl or drinking vessel with interior geometric decoration.
    Red pottery bowl or drinking vessel with interior geometric decoration.
  • Vase, Amratian, Naqada I
    Vase, Amratian, Naqada I
  • C-ware jar with animals. Circa 3700 BC.[20] Naqada IC.[21]
    C-ware jar with animals. Circa 3700 BC.[20] Naqada IC.[21]
  • Double jar with animals being hunted
    Double jar with animals being hunted
Human figures
[edit]
Vase with victorious human figure, and smaller individuals attached with a rope at the neck. Naqada IC-IIA (c. 3800-3600 BC). Royal Museums of Art and History, E3002.[22][23]

A few scenes on Cross-lined pottery (C-ware) depict human figures of the Naqada I period. One depicts a hunter brandishing a bow and holding four dogs on leashes.[24] Several other scenes depicts hunters using harpoons, or herders guiding animals. One scene even seems to represent a man on a boat fishing.[25][26]

One of the most famous and ambitious scenes is depicted on Jar E3002 in the Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels, dated to Naqada IC-IIA (c. 3800-3600 BC).[27] It shows eight individuals in a warlike scene. Two tall figures, equipped with long feathers in their heads, short curly hair, a penile sheath and seemingly an animal tail attached at their waist, raise their arms above their heads in an apparent sign of victory.[22] The smaller figures are apparently arm-less, have flowing hair, and the phallus appears as a curved handle.[28] Four of the smaller figures are attached to the central victor with ropes at their necks.[22][29]

These scenes of warfare in the Nile Valley are dated to Naqada IC, and may be a prelude to future scenes of Pharaohs smiting their enemies.[29] The scene is similar to that depicted in another vase with a victorious or dancing figure holding a prisoner, now in the Petrie Museum.[30][31][32] The raised arms posture of the victor would appear in many statuettes and pottery paintings of the Naqada II period, but as an essentially female posture.[28]

Although men with beards are ubiquitous in sculptural works at the end of the period, they never appear in pottery paintings.[33]

  • Plate with hunter with dogs on leash. Naqada I. Pushkin Museum.[24][34]
    Plate with hunter with dogs on leash. Naqada I. Pushkin Museum.[24][34]
  • Detail of a plate with hunter with dogs on leash. Naqada I. Pushkin Museum.[24][35]
    Detail of a plate with hunter with dogs on leash. Naqada I. Pushkin Museum.[24][35]
  • Victorious figure with prisoner, or dancing scene.[36][37][32]
    Victorious figure with prisoner, or dancing scene.[36][37][32]
  • Man on a boat fishing. Naqada I, ca. 3700 BC.[25][38]
    Man on a boat fishing. Naqada I, ca. 3700 BC.[25][38]
  • Hunter using a harpoon. Circa 3650–3500 BC. Late Naqada I–early Naqada II
    Hunter using a harpoon. Circa 3650–3500 BC. Late Naqada I–early Naqada II
  • Prisoners scene, Abydos, U-415/1.[39][40]
    Prisoners scene, Abydos, U-415/1.[39][40]

Burials

[edit]
A Naqada IB-IC burial assemblage (SD 34), with ivory tags, female statuettes, animal depictions and a variety of pottery (Grave B101, Abadiya). Ashmolean Museum

The period of Naqada I sees the appearance of early forms of artifacts that would become characteristic of the later Naqada periods: ivory tags, simple statuettes.[41]

In the area of pottery, black-topped red pottery was the main style, with some white cross-lined pottery ("C-ware") and red polished ware ("R-ware").[42][43] Rough pottery (type "R") also started to appear during this period.[43]

Known Naqada I cemeteries occupy a rather limited geographical area and are essentially located in the area around Naqada, including the cemeteries of Matmar, Salmany, Naqada and Armant.[44]

Commerce and crafts

[edit]
Vessel with "Dancing" Women. Predynastic Vessel. Naqada IC, circa 3700 BC, from the tomb U-502 at Umm el-Qaab, Abydos (Cairo Museum, JE 99583).[45]

Trade between the Amratian culture bearers in Upper Egypt and populations of Lower Egypt is attested during this time through new excavated objects. A stone vase from the north has been found at el-Amrah. The predecessor Badarian culture had also discovered that malachite could be heated into copper beads;[a] the Amratians shaped this metal by chipping.[46] Obsidian and a very small amount of gold were both imported from Nubia during this time.[10][15] Trade with the oases also was likely.[10] Cedar was imported from Byblos, marble from Paros, as well as emery from Naxos.[46]

New innovations such as adobe buildings, for which the Gerzeh culture is well known, also begin to appear during this time, attesting to cultural continuity. However, they did not reach nearly the widespread use that they were known for in later times.[47] Additionally, oval and theriomorphic cosmetic palettes appear to be used in this period. However, the workmanship was still very rudimentary and the relief artwork for which they were later known is not yet present.[48]

Each Amratian village had an animal deity; amulets were worn of humans and various animals including birds and fish. Food, weaponry, statuettes, decorations, malachite, and occasionally dogs were buried with the deceased.[46]

  • Clay figure, Egypt Naqada I period, circa 4000 BC. RMO Leiden
    Clay figure, Egypt Naqada I period, circa 4000 BC. RMO Leiden
  • Egyptian disk-shaped macehead, 4000–3400 BCE. At the end of the period, it was replaced by the superior Mesopotamian-style pear-shaped macehead, as seen on the Narmer Palette.[49]
    Egyptian disk-shaped macehead, 4000–3400 BCE. At the end of the period, it was replaced by the superior Mesopotamian-style pear-shaped macehead, as seen on the Narmer Palette.[49]
  • Decorated ivory combs. Late Naqada I-Naqada II , 3900-3500 BC
    Decorated ivory combs. Late Naqada I-Naqada II , 3900-3500 BC

Early cosmetic palettes

[edit]
Main article: Cosmetic palette

Siltstone was first utilized for cosmetic palettes by the Badari culture. The first palettes used in the Badarian Period and in Naqada I were usually plain, rhomboidal or rectangular in shape, without any further decoration. It is in the Naqada II period in which the zoomorphic palette is most common.

  • Mudstone cosmetic palette in the form of a turtle with inlaid bone eyes (one missing). Predynastic, Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC. EA 37913 (British Museum)
    Mudstone cosmetic palette in the form of a turtle with inlaid bone eyes (one missing). Predynastic, Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC. EA 37913 (British Museum)
  • Mudstone palette in the form of a hippopotamus. Predynastic, Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC. EA 29416. (British Museum)
    Mudstone palette in the form of a hippopotamus. Predynastic, Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC. EA 29416. (British Museum)
  • Naqada I–II palette for blending cosmetics
    Naqada I–II palette for blending cosmetics
  • Palette in the shape of a boat, 3700–3600 BC, Naqada I
    Palette in the shape of a boat, 3700–3600 BC, Naqada I

Stoneware

[edit]

Various example of basaltic polished stoneware, sometimes called "Black Polished Ware", are known from the Naqada I period, particularly from the area of Abydos.[50]

  • Naqada I basalt vessel. Louvre Museum.[50]
    Naqada I basalt vessel. Louvre Museum.[50]
  • Naqada I basalt vessel. Louvre Museum
    Naqada I basalt vessel. Louvre Museum
  • Basalt vessel with inscription, Naqada I
    Basalt vessel with inscription, Naqada I

Penile sheathes

[edit]
Figure of a man, Naqada I, 3800-3650. Brooklyn Museum.[51]
Statuette of a man with penile sheath, and various ivory tusks. Tomb H29, El Mahasna. Naqada I (c.3900-3600 BC).[52][53]
Seated man with penis sheath. Naqada I. Abadiya, grave B119. Ashmolean Museum.[54]

Numerous male statuettes from the Naqada I-III period are shown displaying penile sheaths, a characteristic attribute of many hunter-gatherer societies.[55] Such depictions appear in Hierakonpolis, Abydos, on the Gebel el-Arak Knife, or on the golden statuettes of Tell el-Farkha.[55] They were held in place by leather strings tied at the waist, and possible at the bottom as well.[55]

It has been suggested that many of the decorated rhinoceros tusks also found in tombs of the period may be the very penile sheaths depicted in these statuettes, or at least symbolic representations of them.[55][56] Penile sheath (karnatiw) may also have been used for medical reasons, in a mistaken attempt to avoid schistosomiasis and contamination by cercariae.[57]

Rather similar figures, using similar ivory material, also appear in the contemporary archaeology of the Levant Chalcolithic (4500-3500 BC), suggesting a level of trade relations and cultural influence from Egypt at that time.[58]

Female statuettes

[edit]

Various female statuettes from Naqada I have been found, mainly made of ivory and bone.[59] A few broadly similar ivory statuettes are already known from the preceding Badarian period.[60]

  • Early Naqada I statuettes.[61][62] Petrie dated these statuettes to SD 31-34.[63]
    Early Naqada I statuettes.[61][62] Petrie dated these statuettes to SD 31-34.[63]
  • Figurines of bone and ivory. Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC.[64]
    Figurines of bone and ivory. Naqada I. 4000–3600 BC.[64]
  • Female statuette, Naqada IC.[65] Alternatively dated Naqada II-III.[66]
    Female statuette, Naqada IC.[65] Alternatively dated Naqada II-III.[66]

Bearded figures

[edit]
Ivory tusk with bearded figure, Badari tomb 3165, dated SD 37-38 (Naqada IC-Naqada IIA).

Tall bearded figures with hats seem to appear towards the end of the Naqada I period, specifically during Naqada IC.[67] Many such figurines have pointed beards, and some trace of hair.[68] There are often indications of clothing, and they may represent people dressed in long cloaks.[68] Bearded men also appear in many other pre-dynastic artifacts, such as the Gebel el-Arak Knife.[69] The headgear of the Mesopotamian-style "Lord of Animals" on the Gebel el-Arak knife may also be comparable to the torus-shaped headgear visible on many of the Naqada I figurines.[69]

The depiction of the hat is often considered as a possible predecessor and one of the earliest representation of the Egyptian White Crown: "Together this knob-like element together with the elongated form of the head are striking in their resemblance to the tapering bulb-shape of the later White Crown."[70]

Many anthropomorphic ivory tags showing bearded individuals were found in Naqada graves dated to the Naqada IC-IIA period, with only a few specimens in Naqada IIB. These have been found in the same graves as anthropomorphic tusk and simple animal ivory tags, indicating contemporaneity between these objects.[71]

A bearded figure atop an ivory tusk was excavated from Badari tomb 3165 and dated SD 37-38, at the intermediate period between Naqada IC and Naqada IIA. This is one of the rare such figurines to have been excavated in a secure archaeological excavation, making it pivotal in determining their antiquity.[72][73][74]

  • Tusk figurine of a man Late Naqada I to Early Naqada II, 3900-3500 BCE
    Tusk figurine of a man Late Naqada I to Early Naqada II, 3900-3500 BCE
  • Anthropomorphic tag. Matmar grave 2682. Naqada IC
    Anthropomorphic tag. Matmar grave 2682. Naqada IC
  • Ivory human figures, Matmar grave 2682. Naqada IC.[75]
    Ivory human figures, Matmar grave 2682. Naqada IC.[75]
  • Naqada, Tomb 1329, transitional Naqada I-II.[76]
    Naqada, Tomb 1329, transitional Naqada I-II.[76]
  • Death mask. Naqada IC–IIA (3750 BC). Hierakonpolis elite cemetery (HK6, Tomb 16).[77][78][79]
    Death mask. Naqada IC–IIA (3750 BC). Hierakonpolis elite cemetery (HK6, Tomb 16).[77][78][79]
  • Inventory of Badari tomb 3165, dated SD 37-38 (Naqada IC-Naqada IIA)
    Inventory of Badari tomb 3165, dated SD 37-38 (Naqada IC-Naqada IIA)
  • Ivory tusk figurine of Badari tomb 3165, dated SD 37-38 (Naqada IC-Naqada IIA)
    Ivory tusk figurine of Badari tomb 3165, dated SD 37-38 (Naqada IC-Naqada IIA)

See also

[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Naqada I.

Archaeological reports

[edit]
  • Petrie, W. M. Flinders (William Matthew Flinders); Quibell, James Edward (1896). Naqada and Ballas. 1895. London, B. Quaritch.
[edit]

Sources

[edit]

References

[edit]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Copper may have also been imported from the Sinai Peninsula or perhaps Nubia.

Citations

  1. ^ "Figurine". Louvre Museum. 2025.
  2. ^ a b Kemp, Barry John (2018). Ancient Egypt: anatomy of a civilization (3rd ed.). New-York (NY): Routledge. p. 42, Fig.2.6. ISBN 978-0415827263.
  3. ^ Hendrickx, Stan. The relative chronology of the Naqada culture: Problems and possibilities [in:] Spencer, A.J. (ed.), Aspects of Early Egypt. London: British Museum Press, 1996: 36-69. p. 64.
  4. ^ Kemp, Barry John (2018). Ancient Egypt: anatomy of a civilization (3rd ed.). New-York (NY): Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-0415827263. An older scheme ran from the Badarian, through the Amratian to the Gerzean and then, via a somewhat ambiguous transition, to the First Dynasty. Subsequently Amratian and Gerzean were generally replaced by the terms Nagada I and Nagada II, which still left the transitional period undefined. A redivision was proposed some years ago which recognized three Nagada phases: I, II and III (III overlapping with the First Dynasty), further subdivided by the use of capital letters (e.g. IIC), and this has become the standard terminology (with the retention of Badarian).
  5. ^ Hendrickx, Stan (2006). "Predynastic—Early Dynastic Chronology". Ancient Egyptian Chronology (PDF). Brill. p. 92, Table II. 1.7. Absolute chronology. ISBN 978 90 04 11385 5.
  6. ^ Hendrickx, Stan (1996), "The relative chronology of the Naqada culture: Problems and possibilities", in Spencer, Jeffrey (ed.), Aspects of Early Egypt, London: British Museum Press, p. 64
  7. ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 481. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
  8. ^ "Naqada chronology". www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
  9. ^ a b Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN 9780192804587.
  10. ^ a b c Grimal, Nicolas (1992). A History of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell. p. 28. ISBN 0-631-17472-9.
  11. ^ Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. p. 71. ISBN 978-90-474-0400-2.
  12. ^ Shaw, Ian, ed. (2000). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. p. 43-46. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
  13. ^ a b Terres du Nil - L'Art des Potiers avant Pharaon (PDF). Saint-Germain-en-Laye: Musée d'Archéologie Nationale. 2024.
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  16. ^ Newell, G.D. (2012). The relative chronology of PNC I. A new chronological synthesis for the Egyptian Predynastic. ex.cathedra Press.
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  18. ^ a b c d e Préhistoires de l’écriture. Presses universitaires de Provence. 24 March 2022. p. 48. ISBN 979-10-320-0369-5.
  19. ^ Török, László (2009). Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt, 3700 BC-AD 500. BRILL. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-90-04-17197-8.
  20. ^ Patch & Eaton-Krauss 2011, pp. 48–49.
  21. ^ "Beaker AN1895.482". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
  22. ^ a b c "Vase". Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels.
  23. ^ Campagno, Marcelo (2005). "On the Post-Firing Incised Potmarks with Human Figures from Naqada". Journal of Serbian Archaeology Society. 21 (125–132): 127, fig.8.
  24. ^ a b c Shaw, Ian, ed. (2003). The Oxford history of ancient Egypt. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 46. ISBN 9780192804587.
  25. ^ a b Patch & Eaton-Krauss 2011, p. 37.
  26. ^ "A shallow white cross-lined ware bowl illustrating a man on a boat alongside a hippo and crocodile". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  27. ^ "Museum notice E3002".
  28. ^ a b Scharff, Alexander (November 1928). "Some Prehistoric Vases in the British Museum and Remarks on Egyptian Prehistory". The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology. 14 (3/4): 268-269. doi:10.2307/3854302.
  29. ^ a b Gayubas, Augusto (2021). "Warfare and Social Change in Non-state Societies of the Predynastic Nile Valley". Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science. Springer International Publishing. p. 47, note 16. These motifs bring to mind the Pharaonic scenes of the king smiting his enemies. According to Hendrickx, Huyge and Wendrich, arms raised "are to be considered a symbol of power, referencing bull horns
  30. ^ Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2012). "Visual representation and state development in Egypt". Archéo-Nil. Revue de la société pour l'étude des cultures prépharaoniques de la vallée du Nil. 22 (1): 26, Fig.1.b. doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1043.
  31. ^ "Modern color photograph". www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
  32. ^ a b Patch & Eaton-Krauss 2011, p. 62, Similar jar from Brussels: E.3002.
  33. ^ Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel; Meyer, Marleen De (2014). "On the origin of the royal false beard and its bovine symbolism". Aegyptus est imago caeli. Studies presented to Krzysztof M. Ciałowicz on his 60th birthday. Krakow: Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University in Kraków. ISBN 978-83-934218-8-6.
  34. ^ Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2012). "Visual representation and state development in Egypt". Archéo-Nil. 22 (1): 28, Fig. 2b. doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1043.
  35. ^ Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2012). "Visual representation and state development in Egypt". Archéo-Nil. 22 (1): 28, Fig. 2b. doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1043.
  36. ^ Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2012). "Visual representation and state development in Egypt". Archéo-Nil. Revue de la société pour l'étude des cultures prépharaoniques de la vallée du Nil. 22 (1): 26, Fig.1.b. doi:10.3406/arnil.2012.1043.
  37. ^ "Modern color photograph". www.ucl.ac.uk. University College, London.
  38. ^ "A shallow white cross-lined ware bowl illustrating a man on a boat alongside a hippo and crocodile". Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  39. ^ Hendrickx, Stan; Eyckerman, Merel (2010). "Continuity and change in the visual representations of Predynastic Egypt". Recent discoveries and latest researches in Egyptology. Proceedings of the First Neapolitan Congress of Egyptology. Naples, June 18th-20th 2008. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 140, Fig.3.
  40. ^ "Vase". Predynastic Online Database.
  41. ^ "Ivory comb with human figure". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
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  44. ^ Hornung, Erik; Krauss, Rolf; Warburton, David A. (30 December 2006). Ancient Egyptian Chronology. BRILL. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-90-474-0400-2.
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  49. ^ Isler, Martin (2001). Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Egyptian Pyramids. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8061-3342-3.
  50. ^ a b "Jarre". Louvre Museum. 2025.
  51. ^ "Male Statuette" (in French). Brooklyn Museum.
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  54. ^ "Seated man". www.ashmolean.org. Ashmolean Museum.
  55. ^ a b c d Orriols i Llonch, Marc (2020). "Predynastic tusks and penis sheaths: a new interpretation". Archéo-Nil: 149–167.
  56. ^ Hendrickx, S.; Eyckerman, M. (2008). "Tusks and tags. Between the hippopotamus and the Naqada plant". Egypt at its Origins 3. Proceedings of the International Conference “Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”. Leuven. pp. 497–570. ISBN 9789042924901.
  57. ^ Nunn, John F. (2002). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 69. ISBN 9780806135045.
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