Mochica language
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|
| Mochica | |
|---|---|
| Yunga, Muchic, Muchik | |
| Native to | Peru |
| Region | Lambayeque Region: Motupe Valley, La Leche Valley, Lambayeque Valley and Zaña Valley La Libertad Region: Jequetepeque Valley and Chicama Valley. |
| Ethnicity | Sican culture Mochicas |
| Extinct | c. 1920 |
| Revival | exist[1] |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | omc |
omc | |
| Glottolog | moch1259 |
 Approximate extent of Mochica before replacement by Spanish. | |
Mochica is an extinct language formerly spoken along the northern coast of Peru and in an inland village. First documented in 1607, the language was widely spoken in the area during the 17th century and the early 18th century. By the late 19th century, the language was dying out and spoken only by a few people in the village of Etén, in Chiclayo. It died out as a spoken language around 1920, but certain words and phrases continued to be used until the 1960s.[2] A revival movement has appeared in recent times.
Classification
[edit]Mochica is usually considered to be a language isolate,[3] but has also been hypothesized as belonging to a wider Chimuan language family. Stark (1972) proposes a connection with Uru–Chipaya as part of a Maya–Yunga–Chipayan macrofamily hypothesis.[4]
Denominations
[edit]Colonial sources record several designations for the language now generally known as Mochica: Yunga, Mochica, Muchic / Muchik, and occasional appellatives such as Pescadora. The choice of name varied according to author, period, and context.
The Franciscan friar Luis Jerónimo de Oré (missionary, polyglot, later bishop of Concepción in Chile) in his Rituale seu Manuale Peruanum (1607) refers to the "Mochica" language and also uses the phrase “Mochica de los Yungas” (en: "Mochica of the Yungas").[5] In the latter case, he seems to distinguish between the language itself —called Mochica— and the northern peoples —denominated Yungas. It is worth noting that at the time Yunga was employed not only as a geographic and climatic term, derived from Quechua exonym yunka (“warm area”), but also to refer to the Mochica as an ethnic group.[6]
In 1644, the diocesan priest and parish vicar of Reque Fernando de la Carrera published the Arte de la lengua yunga (Art of the Yunga Language), the only known colonial grammar of this language, where he consistently used the exonym Yunga.[7] His choice reflects the fact that Yunga was, in the colonial lexicon, the Spanish designation (borrowed from Quechua yunka) for the coastal peoples, regions, and languages.[8]
The Augustinian friar Antonio de la Calancha employed the form Muchic in his Crónica moralizadora (1638).[9] In the nineteenth century, the German physician and philologist Ernst W. Middendorf revived that variant and disseminated it as Muchik in works such as Das Muchik oder die Chimu-Sprache (1892).[10] Middendorf identified the language with that of the Chimú, partly because Quingnam (the actual language of the Chimú kingdom) was at that time poorly documented, whereas colonial references and traces of Mochica still existed. Furthermore, nineteenth-century archaeology often grouped Sicán and Moche material into stages labeled “proto-Chimú” or “early Chimú,” which reinforced the misattribution. Later archaeological and linguistic research clarified these associations.[6] [8]
In sum, Mochica, Yunga, Muchic/Muchik, and occasionally Pescadora appear in the sources and scholarly tradition. Today, Mochica remains the most widely used term in academic literature, while some revitalization projects prefer Muchik, consciously drawing on colonial spellings and nineteenth-century usage.[6]
Language contact
[edit]Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Trumai, Arawak, Kandoshi, Muniche, Barbakoa, Cholon-Hibito, Kechua, Mapudungun, Kanichana, and Kunza language families due to contact. Jolkesky (2016) also suggests that similarities with Amazonian languages may be due to the early migration of Mochica speakers down the Marañón and Solimões.[11]
Speakers
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It is proven and accepted by linguists that it was spoken by those of the Sican culture, it is not proven that it was spoken by those of the Moche culture, and it is ruled out that it was spoken by the chimos, since it is proven that they spoke Quingnam.[citation needed]
Learning program
[edit]The Cultural Office of the district of Mórrope has launched a program to teach the Mochica language in an effort to preserve the region’s ancient cultural legacy. The initiative has been well received by local residents and adopted by numerous schools. Additional cultural activities—such as the crafting of ceramics and decorated gourds (mates)—have also been introduced as part of the revitalization effort.[12]
Previously considered a dead language, Mochica is now taught in 38 schools and has around 80 speakers.[13]
Varieties
[edit]The only varieties are according to each researcher who compiled their vocabulary, so we have the variety of Ernst Middendorf, Compañon, Bruning, etc.
Geographic distribution
[edit]
According to the list of the vicar of Reque and author of the aforementioned Art, Fernando de la Carrera, the peoples who in 1644 spoke the Mochica language were as follows:
- In the corregimiento of Trujillo: Santiago, Magdalena de Cao, Chocope, Chicama valley, Paiján.
- In the corregimiento of Saña: San Pedro de Lloc, Chepén, Jequetepeque, Guadalupe, Pueblo Nuevo, Etén, Chiclayo, San Miguel, Santa Lucía, Parish of Saña, Lambayeque with four rooms, Reque, Monsefú, Ferreñafe, Túcume, Illimo, Pacora, Mórrope and Jayanca.
- In the corregimiento of Piura: Motupe, Salas (annex of Penachi), Copis (annex of Olmos), Frías and Huancabamba.
- In the corregimiento of Cajamarca: Santa Cruz, San Miguel de la Sierra, Ñopos, San Pablo, the doctrine of the rafts of the Marañón, a bias of Cajamarca, Cachén, Guambos and many other places in the Cajamarca mountain range, such as the Condebamba valley.[14]
Phonology
[edit]Consonants
[edit]| Labial | Dental/ Alveolar |
Post- alveolar |
Palatal | Velar | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p | t | c | k | |||
| Affricate | ts | tʃ | |||||
| Fricative | ɸ | ð | s | ʃ | |||
| Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | |||
| Trill | r | ||||||
| Lateral | glide | l | ʎ | ||||
| fricative | ɬ | ||||||
| Approximant | w | j | |||||
- /ð/ may also be heard as [d̪] in free variation.
Vowels
[edit]| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | ɨ ~ ə | u |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Open | a |
- /ɨ/ may also range to [ə].[15]
Typology
[edit]Mochica is typologically different from the other main languages on the west coast of South America, namely the Quechuan languages, Aymara, and the Mapuche language. Further, it contains rare features such as:
- a case system in which cases are built on each other in a linear sequence; for example, the ablative case suffix is added to the locative case, which in turn is added to an oblique case form;
- all nouns have two stems, possessed and non-possessed;
- an agentive case suffix used mainly for the agent in passive clauses; and
- a verbal system in which all finite forms are formed with the copula.
Morphology
[edit]Some suffixes in Mochica as reconstituted by Hovdhaugen (2004):[16]
- sequential suffix: -top
- purpose suffix: -næm
- gerund suffixes: -læc and -ssæc
- gerund suffix: -(æ)zcæf
- gerund suffix: -(æ)d
Lexicon
[edit]Some examples of lexical items in Mochica from Hovdhaugen (2004):[16]
Nouns
[edit]Possessed and non-possessed nouns in Mochica:
| gloss | possessed noun | non-possessed noun |
|---|---|---|
| 'lord' | çiec | çiequic |
| 'father' | ef | efquic |
| 'son' | eiz | eizquic |
| 'nostrils' | fon | fænquic |
| 'eyes' | locɥ | lucɥquic |
| 'soul' | moix | moixquic |
| 'hand' | mæcɥ | mæcɥquic |
| 'farm' | uiz | uizquic |
| 'bread, food' | xllon | xllonquic |
| 'head' | falpæng | falpic |
| 'leg' | tonæng | tonic |
| 'human flesh' | ærqueng | ærquic |
| 'ear' (but med in medec 'in the ears') | medeng | medquic |
| 'belly, heart' (pol and polæng appear to be equivalents) | polæng / pol | polquic |
| 'lawyer' | capæcnencæpcæss | capæcnencæpæc |
| 'heaven' | cuçias | cuçia |
| 'dog' | fanuss | fanu |
| 'duck' | felluss | fellu |
| 'servant' | ianass | yana |
| 'sin' | ixllæss | ixll |
| 'ribbon' | llaftuss | llaftu |
| 'horse' | colæd | col |
| 'fish' | xllacæd | xllac |
| '(silver) money' | xllaxllæd | xllaxll |
| 'maiz' | mangæ | mang |
| 'ceiling' | cɥapæn | cɥap |
| 'creator' | chicopæcæss | chicopæc |
| 'sleeping blanket' | cunur | cunuc |
| 'chair' (< fel 'to sit') | filur | filuc |
| 'cup' (< man 'to drink, to eat') | manir | manic |
| 'toy' (< ñe(i)ñ 'to play') | ñeñur | ñeñuc |
Locative forms of Mochica nouns:
| noun stem | locative form |
|---|---|
| fon 'nostrils' | funæc 'in the nostrils' |
| loc 'foot' | lucæc 'on the feet' |
| ssol 'forehead' | ssulæc 'in the forehead' |
| locɥ 'eye' | lucɥæc 'in the eyes' |
| mæcɥ 'hand' | mæcɥæc 'in the hand' |
| far 'holiday' | farræc 'on holidays' |
| olecɥ 'outside' | olecɥæc 'outside' |
| ssap 'mouth' | ssapæc 'in the mouth' |
| lecɥ 'head' | lecɥæc 'on the head' |
| an 'house' | enec 'in the house' |
| med 'ear' | medec 'in the ears' |
| neiz 'night' | ñeizac 'in the nights' |
| xllang 'sun' | xllangic 'in the sun' |
Quantifiers
[edit]Quantifiers in Mochica:
| quantifier | meaning and semantic categories |
|---|---|
| felæp | pair (counting birds, jugs, etc.) |
| luc | pair (counting plates, drinking vessels, cucumbers, fruits) |
| cɥoquixll | ten (counting fruits, ears of corn, etc.) |
| cæss | ten (counting days) |
| pong | ten (counting fruits, cobs, etc.) |
| ssop | ten (counting people, cattle, reed, etc., i.e. everything that is not money, fruits, and days) |
| chiæng | hundred (counting fruits, etc.) |
Numerals
[edit]Mochica numerals:
| Numeral | Mochica |
|---|---|
| 1 | onæc, na- |
| 2 | aput, pac- |
| 3 | çopæl, çoc- |
| 4 | nopæt, noc- |
| 5 | exllmætzh |
| 6 | tzhaxlltzha |
| 7 | ñite |
| 8 | langæss |
| 9 | tap |
| 10 | çiæcɥ, -pong, ssop, -fælæp, cɥoquixll |
| 20 | pacpong, pacssop, etc. |
| 30 | çocpong, çocssop, etc. |
| 40 | nocpong, nocssop, etc. |
| 50 | exllmætzhpong, exllmætzhssop, etc. |
| 60 | tzhaxlltzhapong, tzhaxlltzhassop, etc. |
| 70 | ñitepong, ñitessop, etc. |
| 80 | langæsspong, langæssop, etc. |
| 90 | tappong, tapssong, etc. |
| 100 | palæc |
| 1000 | cunô |
Sample text
[edit]
The only surviving song in the language is a single tonada, Tonada del Chimo, preserved in the Codex Martínez Compañón among many watercolours illustrating the life of Chimú people during the 18th century:
1st voice: Ja ya llũnch, ja ya llõch
Ja ya llũnch, ja ya lloch [sic]
In poc cha tanmuisle pecan muisle pecan e necam
2nd voice: Ja ya llũnch, ja ya llõch
Ja ya llũnch
1st voice: E menspocehifama le qui
ten que consmuiſle Cuerpo lens
e menslocunmunom chi perdonar moitin Roc
2nd voice: Ja ya llõch
Ja ya llũnh,[sic] ja ya llõch
1st voice: Chondocolo mec checje su chriſto
po que si ta mali muis le cuer po[sic] lem.
lo quees aoscho perdonar
me ñe fe che tas
2nd voice: Ja ya llũnch, ja ya llõch
Ja ya llũnch, ja ya llõch
— [17]
Quingnam, possibly the same as Lengua (Yunga) Pescadora, is sometimes taken to be a dialect, but a list of numerals was discovered in 2010 and is suspected to be Quingnam or Pescadora, not Mochica.
Comparison
[edit]It was common in the 19th century to relate Mochica mainly to Mandarin, Japanese[18] and Quechua.[19] Currently it is discarded and is considered an isolated language.[20] A simple way to check this is to use its our fathers for comparative linguistic purposes:
| Verse in Matthew 6 | Mochica of the "Art of the Yunga Language"[21] | Quechua[22] | Japanese[23] | Chinese[24] | English[25] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 9 | Mæich ef, acaz loc cuçiang nic, tzhæng oc mang licæm mæcha | Yayayku, hanaq pachakunapi kaq. Sutiyki muchasqa kachun. | ten ni mashimasu warera no chichi yo, negawaku wa, mi na wo agamesase tamae. | wǒmen zaì tiān shang de fù, yuàn rén dōu zūn nǐde míng wéi shèng . | Our Father who art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. |
| 10 | piycan ñof tzhæng cuçias, eiæpmang tzhæng polæng mæn, mo æizi capæc cuçiang nic mæn. | Qapaq kayniyki ñuqaykuman hamuchun. Munayniyki rurasqa kachun, imanam hanaq pachapihinataq, kay pachapipas. | Mi kuni wo kitarase tamae. Mi kokoro no ten ni naru gotoku, chi ni mo nasase tamae. | Yuàn nǐde guó jiànglín, yuàn nǐde zhǐyì xíng zaì dì shang, rútóng xíng zaì tiān shang . | Thy kingdom come. Thy will be done, On earth as it is in heaven. |
| 11 | Aio ineng, inengô mæich xllon, piy can ñof allô mo lun. | Punchawninkuna tantaykukta kunan quwayku. | Warera no nichiyō no kate wo kyō mo atae tamae | Wǒmen rìyòng de yǐnshí, jīnrì cìgĕi wǒmen . | Give us this day our daily bread; |
| 12 | Efque can ñof ixllæss aie aca naix efco xllãg muss eio mæich, çio mæn. | Huchaykuktari pampachapuwayku, imanam nuqaykupas tutqayktunan huchallikuqlcunakta pampachaykuhina. | Warera ni oime aru mono wo warera ga yurusu gotoku. Warera no oime wo mo yurushi tamae. | Miǎn wǒmen de zhaì, rútóng wǒmen miǎn le rén de zhaì . | And forgive us our debts, As we also have forgiven our debtors; |
| 13 | Amoz tocæn ñof xllang muss emællæc zær enicnam næm lecɥ nan ef coñof pissin quich | Amataq kachariwaykuchu watiqayman urmanqaykupaq. Yallinraq, mana allimanta qispichiwayku. | Warera wo kokoromi ni awasezu, aku yori sukui idashi tamae | Bú jiào wǒmen yùjiàn shìtan, jiù wǒmen tuōlí xiōngè, ( huò zuò tuōlí è zhĕ ) yīnwei guódù, quánbǐng, róngyào, quán shì nǐde, zhídào yǒngyuǎn | And lead us not into temptation, But deliver us from evil. |
Further reading
[edit]- Brüning, Hans Heinrich (2004). Mochica Wörterbuch / Diccionario mochica: Mochica-castellano, castellano-mochica. Lima: Universidad San Martín de Porres.
- Hovdhaugen, Even (2004). Mochica. Munich: LINCOM Europa.
- Schumacher de Peña, G. (1992). El vocabulario mochica de Walter Lehmann (1929) comparado con otras fuentes léxicas. Lima: UNSM, Instituto de Investigación de Lingüística Aplicada.
References
[edit]- ^ Eloranta, Rita; Bartens, Angela (2020-08-11), Sessarego, Sandro; Colomina-Almiñana, Juan J.; Rodríguez-Riccelli, Adrián (eds.), "New Mochica and the challenge of reviving an extinct language", Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, vol. 29, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 253–274, doi:10.1075/ihll.29.11bar, ISBN 978-90-272-0738-8, retrieved 2025-04-13
- ^
Adelaar, Willem F. H. (1999). "Unprotected languages, the silent death of the languages in Northern Peru". In Herzfeld, Anita; Lastra, Yolanda (eds.). The social causes of the disappearance and maintenance of languages in the nations of America: papers presented at the 49° International Congress of Americanists, Quito, Ecuador, July 7–11, 1997. Hermosillo: USON. ISBN 978-968-7713-70-0.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) - ^ Campbell, Lyle (2012). "Classification of the indigenous languages of South America". In Grondona, Verónica; Campbell, Lyle (eds.). The Indigenous Languages of South America. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 2. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 59–166. ISBN 978-3-11-025513-3.
- ^ Stark, Louisa R. (1972). "Maya-Yunga-Chipayan: A New Linguistic Alignment". International Journal of American Linguistics. 38 (2): 119–135. doi:10.1086/465193. ISSN 0020-7071. S2CID 145380780.
- ^ de Oré, Luis Jerónimo (1607). Rituale, seu Manuale Peruanum, et forma breuis administrandi apud Indos sacrosancta Baptismi, Poenitentiae, Eucharistiae, Matrimonij, & Extremae vnctionis sacramenta. Iuxta ordinem Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae. Per R.P.F. Ludouicum Hieronymum Orerium, ordinis Minorum concionatorem, & sacrae theologiae lectorem accuratum: et quae indigent versione, vulgaribus idiomatibus Indicis, secundum diuersos situs omnium prouinciarum noui orbis Perù, aut per ipsum translata, aut eius industria elaborata (in Latin, Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara). Naples: apud Io. Iacobum Carlinum, & Costantinum Vitalem.
- ^ a b c Eloranta-Barrera Virhuez, Rita (2024). "El problema de las denominaciones «lengua yunga» y «lengua pescadora» en Documentos Coloniales del Norte del Perú" [The Problem of the Denominations «Yunga Language» and «Pescadora Language» in North Peruvian Colonial Documents]. Allpanchis (in Spanish). 51 (94): 99–112. doi:10.36901/allpanchis.v51i94.1491. ISSN 2708-8960.
- ^ de la Carrera Daza, Fernando (1644). Arte de la Lengua Yunga de los valles del Obispado de Truxillo del Peru, con un Confessonario, y todas las Oraciones Christianas, traducida en la lengua, y otras cosas [Art of the Yunga Language of the Valleys of the Diocese of Trujillo in Peru] (in Spanish and Mochica). Lima: I. de Contreras.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ a b Huamanchumo de la Cuba, Ofelia (2024). "La lengua mochica, según la Gramática de E. W. Middendorf (1892)" [The Mochica Language According to the Grammar Book by E. W. Middendorf (1892)]. Allpanchis (in Spanish). 51 (94): 147–178. doi:10.36901/allpanchis.v51i94.1502. ISSN 2708-8960.
- ^ de la Calancha, Antonio (1638). Coronica moralizada del Orden de San Augustin en el Peru, con sucesos egenplares en esta monarquia (in Spanish). Barcelona: Pedro Lacavalliera.
- ^ Middendorf, Ernst W. (1892). Das Muchik oder die Chimu-sprache: Mit einer einleitung über die culturvölker, die gleichzeitig mit den Inkas und Aimaràs in Südamerika lebten, und einem anhang über die Chibcha-sprache (in German). Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus.
- ^ Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho de Valhery (2016). Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas (Ph.D. dissertation) (2 ed.). Brasília: University of Brasília.
- ^ "Lengua Muchik: Entrevista sobre su recuperación en Mórrope". YouTube. Retrieved 7 June 2025.
- ^ "La lengua muchik ya tiene 80 muchik hablantes". La Razón. December 24, 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2025.
- ^ Moche A Peruvian Coastal Community : Gillin, John : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming, página 7, retrieved 6 April 2024
- ^ Eloranta-Barrera Virhuez, Rita Silvia (2020). Mochica: grammatical topics and external relations (PDF). Rijksuniversiteit te Leiden dissertation. ISBN 978-94-6093-348-6.
- ^ a b Hovdhaugen, Even (2004). Mochica. Munich: LINCOM Europa.
- ^ "Bajo y Tamboril para baylar cantando. [Índice:] Tonada del Chimo.". Trujillo del Perú . Volumen 2 (in Spanish). Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. p. 180. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
- ^ Hoyle, R. L. (1938). Lós mochicas. Casa editora “La Crónica” y “Variedades”, s. a. ltda. p. 42.
- ^ Douay, L. (1891). Études étymologiques sur l'antiquité américaine. J. Maisonneuve. p. 103.
- ^ Eloranta-Barrera Virhuez, R. (2020). Mochica: grammatical topics and external relations (PDF). LOT Dissertations series. LOT. p. 15. ISBN 978-94-6093-348-6.
- ^ Salas García, J. A. (30 June 2011). "El Padre Nuestro en la lengua mochica". Boletín de la Academia Peruana de la Lengua: 69–111. doi:10.46744/bapl.201101.002. ISSN 2708-2644.
- ^ Tavárez, D. (14 December 2017). Words and Worlds Turned Around: Indigenous Christianities in Colonial Latin America. University Press of Colorado. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-60732-684-7.
- ^ Shin yaku zensho : New Testament in romaji, being a transliteration of the Japanese Authorized Version. American Bible Society, Japan Agency. 1904. p. 11.
- ^ Matthew 6 of the Chinese Pinyin Bible, retrieved 7 April 2024
- ^ The Holy Bible. RSVCE, retrieved 13 April 2024
External links
[edit]
