Southern Esoteric Buddhism

Southern Esoteric Buddhism and Borān Kammaṭṭhāna are terms used to refer to a collection of esoteric practices, views, and texts within Theravada Buddhism. Often known as Esoteric Theravada or Tantric Theravada, these labels highlight its parallel with tantric traditions—though it does not employ actual tantras—and it is also sometimes referred to as Traditional Theravada Meditation.

L.S. Cousins defines this phenomenon as "a type of Southern Buddhism which links magical and ritual practices to a theoretical systematisation of the Buddhist path itself."

In the West, the study of Southern Esoteric Buddhism was pioneered by professor François Bizot and his colleagues at the École française d'Extrême-Orient. Their research, especially focusing on material discovered at Angkor, has been instrumental in revealing the complex interplay between orthodox Theravada doctrines and these esoteric practices.

Over the past two centuries, the Boran tradition has been marginalized by colonial governments and by the "Protestant Buddhist" movement—reformers who promote a strict "Pali Tipitaka only" sola scriptura approach and dismiss local practices as deviations from orthodox scriptural teachings. As such, the tradition stands in opposition to Buddhist modernism and Secular Buddhism.

Etymology

As a term, Borān Kammaṭṭhāna is a combination of the Tai-Khmer word បុរាណ pronounced [boːraːn] meaning ancient or outdated, derived from the Sanskrit word "Purāṇa" along with the Pali word Kammaṭṭhāna meaning "place of work". Essentially, it refers to outdated and ancient spiritual practices.

Borān Kammaṭṭhāna specifically constitutes Theravada Buddhism that has blended into a distinct form with the ancient folk practices and esoteric spiritual traditions of the Tai-Khmer peoples of Thailand, Laos, Shan State in Myanmar, Cambodia, and the Sipsongpanna district of Yunnan province in China.

However, other parts of the Theravada world also have their own versions of esotericism.

History

Sri Lankan beginnings

• 
  Abhayagiri Dagoba at Anuradhapura built in the 2nd Century BC
• 
  Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, worshipped in Lanka today as Natha deva.
• 
  Ratnamali Yantra

Historically, the Buddhists of the Abhayagiri and Jetavanaramaya fraternities in Sri Lanka are known to have applied the Bodhisattva precepts and Tantric rituals in their practice and this might have had an influence on Southeast Asia through their missionary work in Java. According to Cousins, it is possible that Southern Esoteric Buddhism developed within the "orthodox" Mahavihara tradition of Sri Lanka, citing the 5th century Buddhist scholar Buddhaghosa's mention of secret texts (gulhagantham), those being texts that can only transmitted through a guru-disciple relationship, as well as other textual evidence from the Pali commentaries. This shows that esotericism was prevalent in Theravada prior the 5th century AD.

One can also trace the present tradition of paritta chanting in Lanka to tantric traditions practised by mendicants of the Abhayagiri Vihara. Paritta chanting has an important social and ceremonial function in Sri Lanka. Similarly, the Sri Lankan Theravāda tradition is unique in developing and maintaining paritta bhanaka lineages dedicated to the oral transmission of parittas. While oral recitation lineages that once preserved the Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma Piṭaka texts from teacher to disciple have faded over time, the paritta transmission lineages have endured due to the essential role of oral transmission in conferring the power of specific texts upon disciples.

The origin of yantra usage in the Theravada tradition as an aid to meditation can be said to come from the Abhayagiri sangha.

Cousins concludes that "It is quite possible that present-day Southern Esoteric Buddhism contains ideas and practices deriving from more than one of these sources. Nevertheless it is certainly premature to assume that it has its origins in unorthodox circles."

Among the last mendicants to be initiated into the Boran Kammatthana tradition in Sri Lanka was Doratiyāveye Thera who lived around 1900.

Flowering

• 
  Cambodia Vajra
• 
  Hevajra, from the reign of Jayavarman 7th of Khmer Empire

Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia was significantly shaped by the practice of Vajrayana, which thrived in the region during the Khmer Empire and Srivijaya periods. However, it is likely that Vedic esoteric practices were already present due to the broader Indianization of Southeast Asia.

Ari Buddhism was a form of Buddhism practiced in the Bagan kingdom of Myanmar (formerly Burma), incorporating Tantric elements from India as well as local traditions of Nat (spirit) and Nāga worship. Scholars such as François Bizot have suggested that the Buddhism of the Mon people may have influenced the later Yogāvacara tradition.

The Yogāvacara tradition remained a mainstream Buddhist practice in Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand well into the modern era. Evidence of its early presence includes the Phitsanulok Dhammakaya inscription from northern Thailand, which contains esoteric elements and dates to the Sukhothai Kingdom (16th century). According to scholar Kate Crosby, this inscription attests to an esoteric tradition older than any other living meditation tradition in the contemporary Theravada world.

During the reign of Rama I, the Thai Yogāvacara master Kai Thuean (1733–1823) was invited to Bangkok to lead the meditation tradition there. He was later appointed Sangharaja (supreme patriarch) by Rama II of Siam in 1820. In Sri Lanka, a revival of Buddhist meditation in the 1750s led to the proliferation of Yogāvacara teachings and texts by Thai monks from the Ayutthaya Kingdom, including the Yogāvacara's manual.

Following the re-establishment of the Sri Lankan sangha by Upali Thera, monks of the Siam Nikaya practiced and disseminated these teachings, establishing monasteries around Kandy. Yogāvacara practices, such as the rapid repetition of Araham, were still observed in Sri Lanka as late as the 1970s.

Decline (19th–20th century)

• 
  Seal of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya monastic order
• 
  King Mongkut in the white robes of a lay renunciant
• 
  Flag of Democratic Kampuchea

The decline of Southern Esoteric Buddhism began in the 19th century with the rise of reformed Buddhism, particularly the establishment of the Dhammayuttika Nikaya by King Rama IV (1851–1868) of the Thai Rattanakosin Kingdom in 1833. This reform movement emphasized the Pali Canon as the main authority for monastic practices and sought to eliminate superstitious and folk religious elements. The Dhammayuttika Nikaya was later introduced into Cambodia, then a protectorate of the Thai kingdom, further contributing to the decline of esoteric traditions.

The textual foundation of this reform movement was rooted in the Sri Lankan Mahavihara school, which had undergone its own reforms in the 12th century under Parakramabahu I. This school, heavily influenced by the works of the 5th-century scholar Buddhaghosa, was regarded as the orthodox interpretation of Theravāda Buddhism and viewed other Buddhist practices as unorthodox. The reforms reinforced monastic discipline, leading to a decline in esoteric Buddhist practices and the production of non-canonical texts.

Further suppression occurred under the French colonial empire, which ruled Cambodia and continued the policy of marginalizing pre-reform Cambodian Buddhism. Despite these efforts, traditional esoteric practices persisted in rural areas. However, the devastation caused by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and religious repression in Communist Laos inflicted additional damage on these traditions.

Legacy

• 
  Logo of the Samatha Trust
• 
  Logo of the Dhammakaya movement
• 
  Offering ceremony at Wat Paknam Bhasicharoen

Southern Esoteric Buddhist influences may be present in the practices and views of the modern Thai Dhammakaya movement. As well as their mother temple, Wat Paknam.

Among the practitioners of Boran Kammatthana in the West are Samatha Trust, an organization dedicated to promoting the older Samatha tradition of meditation.

Practices and concepts

• 
  Buddhist prayer beads used for mantra recitation.
• 
  Trinisinghe Yantra
• 
  Buddha amulets from Thailand

Esoteric Theravāda Lineage Chart

While lacking tantras, Boran Kammatthana retains extensive meditation manuals and esoteric practices. Cousins describes Southern Esoteric Buddhism as "tantro-kabbalistic" mysticism, characterized by mapping inner and outer worlds through elaborate correspondences—linking the human body, cosmos, and higher knowledge. This system integrates magic, sound and number symbolism, sacred gestures, and structured ritual patterns. Key features of Yogāvacara or Boran Kammatthana practice include:

Ritual and Devotional Practices:

• Chanting: Recitation of Parittas and Gāthās for protection and blessings.
• Pujas and Sādhanās: Ritual worship and devotion directed toward Buddhas, Devas, and spirits.
• Merit-Making Ceremonies: Events such as the Vessantara Festival, Royal Ploughing Ceremony, and Triyampawai ceremony.
• Spirit Invocation: Rituals involving spirits like Sanni Yakuma or Baci, as well as the invocation of ghosts such as Somdej Toh and Mae Nak. This also includes the use of Spirit houses.

Esoteric and Symbolic Systems:

• Esoteric Interpretation: Use of Twilight language and symbolic meanings embedded in Buddhist words, objects, myths, numbers, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• Energy Centers & Channels: Concepts such as cakra/marma and nadi (subtle body anatomy).
• Embryology Symbolism & Dhammakaya Meditation: Visualization of a "Buddha within," culminating in Dhammakaya realization.
• Alchemy & Purification: Spiritual refinement modeled on alchemical processes, such as mercury purification techniques.
• Indic Astrology: Integration of astrological practices within the tradition.

Magical and Protective Practices:

• Magical Practices: Use of mantras, rituals, and spells for healing, longevity, and protection.
• Yantras & Sacred Scripts: Symbolic diagrams in the form of cloth and tattooes written in Khom Thai script or Tai Tham script.
• Amulets: Thai Buddha amulet and Takrut used in rituals.
• Sand Pagodas: The creation of stupas and pagoda replicas made from sand for ritual purposes.

Initiation and Transmission:

• Samaya Initiation: Essential guru-disciple transmission in Yogāvacara practice.

Dual Paths and Accessibility:

• Right-Hand & Left-Hand Paths: Internal and external applications of esoteric techniques.
• Monastic & Lay Participation: A path accessible to both monastics and laypersons.

These practices are most commonly associated with Cambodian Buddhism but have historical roots in various Theravāda traditions across Southeast Asia. It also contains South Asian religious elements like protective tattoos, astrological practices, spirit invocation, and meditative visualization of sacred lights and syllables within the body.

Bizot's research highlights a rebirthing ritual involving a cave-as-womb metaphor, leading to the Dhammakaya transformation. Several studies by Bizot have examined certain "rebirthing" rituals that were common in pre-modern Cambodia. These rituals incorporated symbolic sacred syllables, meditation on embryonic development, and the belief that this practice would allow one's body to be reborn as the Dhammakaya.

Another practice studied by Bizot was the use of yantras or sacred diagrams, which were made with Pali words and phrases and used as tattoos and on clothing. These esoteric traditions also include visualization practices featuring colored lights paired with sacred syllables located throughout the body, culminating in visions of the Buddha and a stupa at the top of Mount Sumeru.

Mūlakammaṭṭhāna

In the Pali commentarial tradition, the term mūlakammaṭṭhāna is traditionally rendered as "basic meditation subject" or "root meditation theme." Within the classical Theravāda tradition articulated in exegetical commentaries and meditation manuals, it denotes the primary object of focus selected by a practitioner to cultivate samatha (tranquility) and develop samādhi. Common examples include mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasati), contemplation of the body (kāyagatāsati), or visualization of a kasina (a colored disk or totality). These foundational practices serve as preparatory stages for attaining deeper meditative absorptions, or jhāna.

By contrast, the Tai-Khmer Yogāvacara tradition interprets mūlakammaṭṭhāna through a distinct esoteric framework. Here, the concept encompasses a highly ritualized system integrating meditation with elements such as sacred Khmer seed syllables, mantra recitation, the activation of symbolic bodily points ("body loci"), and the visualization of yantra-like diagrams. Unlike the canonical emphasis on mental stabilization, this approach seeks to catalyze the awakening of latent spiritual energies, reflecting a tantric-inflected methodology that extends significantly beyond conventional Theravāda exegesis.

Mantras and Generative Grammar

• 
  Various symbolisms and meanings of the syllables of NAMO BUDDHAYA.
• 
  Various symbolisms and meanings of the syllables of MA A U.
• 
  Various symbolisms and meanings of the syllables of SAMVIDHA PUKAYAPA.

In the Yogāvacara tradition, sacred mantras such as "Namo Buddhaya" ("Homage to the Buddha") and "Araham" ("Worthy One") are central to meditation practice. These mantras, also found in Classical Theravada, are imbued with esoteric interpretations, with each syllable assigned deeper, symbolic meanings.

For example, the mantra "Namo Buddhaya" is analyzed esoterically, with its syllables associated with familial and societal virtues.

• NA – the twelve virtues of the mother
• MO – the twenty-one virtues of the father
• BU – the six virtues of the king
• DDHA – the seven virtues of the family
• YA – the ten virtues of the teacher

Robert Percival, who was in Ceylon from 1796 to 1800, described Buddhist mantra meditation as follows: "To their girdles they wear suspended strings of beads made of a brownish or black wood; and mutter prayers as they go along."

These esoteric practices remain most prevalent in Northern Thai and Cambodian Buddhism, where they integrate elements of Theravada and esoteric Buddhist traditions.

Visualizations

In one text studied by Bizot, meditation includes visualization of colored lights paired with sacred syllables within the body, along with visions of the Buddha and a stupa atop Mount Sumeru. Another text, the Ratanamala, uses the itipi so formula for various purposes, including:

• Spiritual protection
• Magical 'worldly' applications ("left-hand path")
• Transformation of the body into a kayasiddhi, a spiritual body
• The pursuit of nirvana ("right-hand path")

The Saddavimala, a widely circulated Yogāvacara text, describes how practitioners rebuild themselves spiritually by internalizing Dhamma as bodily components, forming a new, immortal spiritual body that replaces the physical form at death. This process involves several key steps, which the yogavacara must undertake:

• Memorise the stages of the embryonic development (with their alphabetic equivalents) which form the stages of his own formation;
• Through these stages, build himself another body using the organs and constituents that are the letters, i.e. the portions of the Dhamma;
• Become conscious that this new body, which he is going to produce outside of himself, first takes form within him, in his stomach at the level of the navel, taking the form of a Buddha the height of a thumb;
• Pursue and achieve in this life the construction of this immortal vehicle, because it leads the person who possesses it to Nibbana, in that it takes the place of the spent physical form at the moment of death.

Devotionalism

Prayers and worship of deities in Theravada Buddhism is rooted in sutta-based textual information such as the Nandiya Sutta and Pataligama Sutta which advise lay practitioners to provide offering of food in order to receive honors and mendicants to recollect the virtues of the devas in order to emulate their qualities. Whereas classical Theravada includes parittas from the Pali Canon directed towards gods, the esoteric tradition involves lay and monastic acharyas who often compose their own gathas praising the qualities of a particular deity or deities and calling upon them in times of need.

Rituals and Ritual Implements

Mitmor spirit knife used in Boran Kammatthana, an esoteric Theravadan tradition practiced in the Tai-Khmer cultural sphere.

One ritual that is a part of the esoteric tradition of Theravada is the Naga ordination ceremony, sometimes a golden hat known as the Kratham Hua is worn. Whereas Classical Theravada makes use of wrathful practices such as the invocation of the Atanatiya Paritta for exorcisms, the esoteric tradition makes use of ritual implements such as the Mitmor Knife as a conduit for the channeling of maha-metta and protection from dark forces. This is similar to the use of phurba and karthika in tantric traditions.

Roles

Acharyas

Lay and monastic masters of esoteric arts in Thai culture are referred to as Geji Ajahn. A regional subsect of Geji Ajahn in the Lanna region of Thailand are referred to with the title of Kruba Ajahn.

In Cambodia and Laos, the geji ajahns (respected forest masters) are renowned for their mastery of esoteric disciplines. They are widely believed to possess supernormal abilities such as the divine eye and communication with spirits. These powers are cultivated through intensive practices including Kasina meditation, mantra recitation, and ascetic observances (dhutanga).

Today, their influence remains especially strong along the banks of the Mekong, where monks and magicians following these traditions continue to attract devotees seeking spiritual protection, healing, and guidance.

Hermits

• 
  An altar depicting nats and weizza (Taw Bo Bo Aung, Bodaw Aung Mingaung), Mount Popa, Myanmar
• 
  A statue of a Ruesi at Wat Suan Tan in [Nan, Thailand]

In the Isigili Sutta, a well known paritta, the Buddha recollects the virtuous qualities of the paccekabuddha rishis such as the Vedic sage Bharadvaja. The practices of the Burmese Buddhist Weizza ("Wizards") and Thai Ruesi, who follow an esoteric system of occult practices (such as recitation of spells, samatha and alchemy) believed to lead to supernormal powers and even immortality, might also be related to Southern Esoteric Buddhism.

Brahmins

Brahmins have long served as ritual specialists in Southeast Asian Buddhist kingdoms, working side by side with Buddhist monks in royal consecrations, state ceremonies, astrology, and calendrical rites. From the courts of Angkor to Ayutthaya and modern Bangkok, this partnership created a lasting Buddhist–Brahmanical blend.

Research on the boran (“ancient”) tradition shows that this shared world wove together mantras, yantras, protective rites, and deity invocations—sometimes calling on Brahmanical gods and Sanskrit or Khmer seed-syllables—within Theravāda ideas of meditation and merit. The lines between monastic practices and the work of courtly or lay ritual experts, including Brahmins, were often fluid.

In Thailand and Cambodia, these blended practices continue in ritual technologies such as paritta chanting, protective cloths, and consecrations, where monks and Brahmins may collaborate or share ritual repertoires—even though modern reform movements have tried to draw clearer lines around “orthodox” Theravāda practice.

The current Chief Royal Brahmin of Thailand is Chawin Rangsipramanakul.

Regional variations and related traditions

• 
  A Baci ceremony in Vientiane, Laos
• 
  Royal Brahmins performing a ceremony, mural painting from Temple of Emerald Buddha

Thai forest monks such as Ajahn Lee Dhammadharo were also influenced by esoteric practices, as exemplified by his text *The Divine Mantra*.

Thus, while Boran Kammatthana lacks a direct tantric framework, it retains complex esoteric practices that align with other forms of Buddhist mysticism. The integration of mantra recitation, sacred symbolism, visualization, and ritual purification methods demonstrates its unique position within the broader landscape of Theravāda esotericism.

Texts

Suvannasama Jataka in Khom Thai script

This is a list of texts that are important in various Theravāda traditions but have either been excluded from the standardized Pāli Tipiṭaka or are known primarily through oral transmission. Many are still used today in recitations, folk Buddhism, or esoteric meditation traditions.

Jataka and Narrative Texts

These texts contain moral and legendary stories—some related to the Buddha's previous lives—used in teaching and storytelling.

• Mahavamsa – A historical chronicle of Sri Lanka, composed in Pāli.
• Ramakien – Thai version of the Hindu epic Ramayana, adapted into a local Buddhist context.
• Paññāsa Jātaka – "Fifty Jātakas" preserved in the Thai and Lao traditions, often featuring regional themes.
• Sang Thong
• Jataka Poth Vahanse – Sri Lankan anthology of Jātaka tales with commentary.
• Sang Sinxay – Laotian poetic Jātaka-style epic attributed to the monk Pangkham.
• Manimekalai – Tamil Buddhist epic connected to Silappatikaram, emphasizes ethics and renunciation.
• Kundalakesi – Tamil poetic Buddhist drama that debates nihilism and Jainism.
• Khun Chang Khun Phaen

Esoteric and Meditative Manuals

Manuals used in advanced or oral meditation systems, including Yogāvacara and other tantric-inflected methods.

• Visuddhimagga
• Vimuttimagga
• Ajahn Lee's Divine Mantra – Manual describing a short but powerful Pāli mantra practice.
• Mahādibbamanta – A large and obscure mantra or protective incantation.
• Dhammānudhammapaṭipatti – Treatise on practicing in line with the Dhamma.
• Yogāvacara's manual – Esoteric Sri Lankan manual that teaches visualizations and breath practices.
• Kammatthāna Majjhima Baeb Lamdub
• Nangsue Phuttharangsi Thritsadiyan
• Amatākaravaṇṇanā – A detailed 18th-century Sinhala manual compiled by disciples of Thai meditation teachers, foundational to Esoteric Theravāda.
• Phlōv Preah Dhammalaṅkāra

Protective and Ritual Texts

Used in paritta chanting, blessings, healing, and apotropaic (protective) ceremonies.

• Rogantara Dīpanī
• Jinapañjara Gāthā – Thai Pāli chant for spiritual protection, widely memorized.
• Dhammakāyānussati Gāthā – Gatha reflecting on the Dhamma-body, used in some Thai traditions.
• Saddavimala – Protective text or hymn recited in some ritual settings.
• Itipiso Ratanamala – Hymn of praise sometimes classified as a paritta.
• Piruwana Poth Wahanse – A Sri Lankan compilation of parittas, including rare verses like Narasiha Gatha and Jalanandana Paritta.
• Tiruvempavai and Tiruppavai – Tamil devotional hymns used by the Thai royal Brahmins during annual rituals.

Doctrinal and Philosophical Texts

Important regional scholastic works or commentaries on Theravāda Dhamma.

• Narai Sip Pang
• Trai Phum Phra Ruang
• Kappālaṅkāra – Lesser-known text concerning Dhamma ornamentation or cosmology.

Apocryphal Suttas

• Uṇhissavijaya Sutta – Rare protective chant included in the Lao Canon, with Mahāyāna parallels.
• Mahāmegha Sutta - Canonical in the Khmer recension of the Pali Tipitaka.
• Ākāravattārasutta – Doctrinal sutta preserved in some regional recensions.
• Marañāṇa Sutta

Misc

• Vajirasāratthasaṅgaha
• Sipsongpanna Pattra Buddhist Canon - as preserved by the Dai people.

Buddhas, Deities and Spirits

This is a list of Buddhas, deities, dharmapālas, and spirits emphasized in local or folk traditions of Boran Kammatthana and popular Theravāda Buddhism. These figures are not often not emphasized in canonical Pali Tipitaka texts but are widely venerated through oral traditions, protective rites, and devotional practices in Southeast Asia.

• 
  Bhairava, venerated in Thailand as Phra Pirab.
• 
  Cambodian Hevajra yantra.

Buddhas, Bodhisattas and Arahants

• Avalokiteśvara – Known as Kwan Im in Thailand, Natha Deva in Sri Lanka, and Lawka Nat (လောကနတ်) in Myanmar.
• Bhaisajyaguru – The Medicine Buddha; known as Phra Kring in Thai tradition.
• Samantabhadra – Revered in Sri Lanka under the name Sumana Saman.
• Phra Setthi Navagotta
• Phra Sangkajai – Known for his wisdom and corpulent appearance, sometimes mistaken for the Chinese Laughing Buddha.
• Gavampati - Known as Phra Pidta in Thailand.
• Upagupta – A prominent figure in Southeast Asian folklore; called Shin Upagutta in Burma and invoked for protection against evil.
• Sīvali – Venerated for his unmatched merit and blessings; this Arahant often worshipped to attract wealth and fortune.
• Phra Malai – A mythical monk who journeyed to heaven and hell; widely featured in apocalyptic and visionary literature like the *Phra Malai Klon Suat*. Considered to have qualities similar to Kṣitigarbha.

Rishis

• Jīvaka - Revered in the Wai khru ceremony.
• Sudeva
• Zawgyi – Semi-mythical alchemist and forest wizard, prominent in Burmese folklore.
• Ta Eisey - Cambodian equivalent of Bharata Muni

Supraregional Gods

• Indra - King of Tavatimsa heaven, appears in the unique form of Sihuhata in the Lanna region of Thailand. Known as Thagyamin in Burma and can appear in his Bo Bo Gyi form.
• Pajjuna - Thunderer god appealed to for rain.
• Four Heavenly Kings – Protective deities who guard the four cardinal directions in Buddhist cosmology.
• Vibhishana – Brother of Ravana from the Ramayana; regarded as a guardian deity in Kelaniya, Sri Lanka.
• Kataragama deviyo – A regional form of Murugan, venerated by both Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus.
• Hanuman – Avatar of Shiva and devotee of Rama; incorporated in Buddhist and folk rituals.
• Shiva – Known in Thai Buddhism as Phra Isuan, sometimes identified with guardian roles.
• Ganesha – Called Phra Phikanet in Thailand; invoked for wisdom and obstacle removal.
• Kali
• Upulvan – Local Sri Lankan form of Vishnu or Varuna, honored as a dharmapāla.
• Bhairava – Fierce protective deity venerated by Muay Thai fighters and tantric adepts. Though he is depicted in Thailand with iconography of the rakshasa Viradha.
• Hevajra – A tantric yidam central to Cambodian esoteric Buddhism.
• Manimekhala – Sea goddess and guardian of mariners.
• Phra Phrom – Thai adaptation of the Hindu god Brahma, often worshipped for protection and wisdom.
• Rahu – Astral deity associated with eclipses and fate; invoked in astrology-based rituals.
• Ganga – River goddess venerated in both Hindu and Buddhist contexts.
• Hariti – Originally a yakshini, later transformed into a protector of children in Mahāyāna and Theravāda traditions.
• Trailokyavijaya – Wrathful protector in esoteric Buddhist pantheon.
• Sarasvati – Goddess of knowledge and arts, known as Thurathadi in Burma.
• Suvannamaccha – Mermaid daughter of Ravana in Thai folklore, often honored in local rituals.
• Pattini – Tamil goddess Kannaki Amman, worshipped as a protector and healer.
• Navagraha

Sri Lankan Deities and Figures

Category:Sinhalese Buddhist deities

• Dedimunda deviyo – Warrior deity believed to be an attendant of Vessavana.
• Suniyam – Protective deity invoked in exorcism and justice rituals.

Thai Deities and Spirits

Category:Thai deities

• Phosop – Rice goddess, often equated with Lakshmi in Thai folklore.
• Nang Kwak – Household deity believed to bring luck and commercial success.
• Phra Mae Thorani – Earth goddess who aided the Buddha; invoked in merit-making.

Burmese Nats

Category:Burmese nats

• 37 Great Nats – Burmese spirit deities incorporated into local Buddhist cosmology.
• Popa Medaw – Protective yakshini of Mount Popa; venerated in nat shrines.

Cambodian deities

Category:Cambodian deities

• Yeay Mao – Cambodian spirit guardian of travelers and protector of the land.
• Khleang Moeung - Village protector deity.

Major figures in Borān Kammaṭṭhāna

Here is a list of figures that have been praised in local Theravada Buddhist traditions on account of their extraordinary saintliness and powers as well as scholars of the traditions.

• 
  Statue of Bo Bo Aung, a famed Burmese Weizza or spiritual adept.
• 
  The Kyaikhtisaung Sayadaw delivering a Dhamma talk.
• 
  Somdej Phra Buddhacarya (Toh Brahmaramsi), an influential Thai monk.
• 
  Khruba Siwichai, saint of Northern Thai Buddhism.

Scholars

• Phraya Anuman Rajadhon
• Oskar von Hinüber
• François Bizot
• Kate Crosby

Burmese Mystics and Ascetics

Category:Weizzas

Myanmars spiritual landscape includes many holy men who practiced extreme asceticism or alchemical meditation:

• Shin Iza Gawna – Mystic who lived in mountain caves and transmitted meditation teachings.
• Bo Bo Aung – Famed Weizza (esoteric adept) believed to have achieved supernatural longevity.
• Bo Min Gaung – Spiritual successor of Bo Bo Aung; claimed to have performed miracles.
• U Khandi – Hermit monk who helped rebuild pagodas and was highly respected by both laypeople and royals.

Thai Buddhist Masters

Category:Geji Ajahns

These Thai monks and acharyas are revered for their meditative attainments and for founding meditation schools and temples:

• Luang Pu Thuat – Semi-legendary monk known for miraculous deeds such as turning seawater into fresh water.
• Kai Thuean – Forest meditation monk known for cultivating inner energy (*barami*).
• Somdej Toh – Architect of many Thai chants; famous for his amulets and deep scriptural knowledge.
• Luang Pu Sodh Candasaro – Reviver of the Dhammakaya meditation tradition in central Thailand.
• Khruba Siwichai – Iconic reformer and builder monk who renovated temples across northern Thailand.

Important sites

While not mentioned in the Pali Canon, these sites often reflect the syncretic blend of animism, Hinduism, and esoteric or tantric practices alongside orthodox Buddhist devotion. These are a list of pilgrimage or sacred sites that hold significant importance in the local Theravāda Buddhist traditions.

Sri Lanka

• Solosmasthana - 16 main sites of importance in Sri Lankan Buddhism.
• Sri Dalada Maligawa – Also known as the Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic in Kandy, it houses what is believed to be the tooth relic of the Buddha and is one of the most venerated Buddhist shrines in Sri Lanka.
• Ruhuṇu Kataragama Dēvālaya – A major pilgrimage site dedicated to the deity Kataragama (Skanda/Murugan), worshipped by both Buddhists and Hindus.
• Koneswaram Temple – A coastal Hindu temple in Trincomalee with historical Buddhist associations; the site reflects overlapping Saivite and Buddhist traditions.
• Lankatilaka Vihara – A Buddhist temple that exhibits both Buddhist and Hindu architectural elements and iconography.
• Tenavaram temple – A historical coastal shrine complex blending Buddhist and Hindu devotional practices, formerly dedicated to Vishnu.
• Maha Saman Devalaya – A shrine in Ratnapura devoted to the deity Saman, a guardian figure in Sinhala Buddhism considered a protector of the Buddha's teachings.
• Halpe Pattini Devalaya – A shrine dedicated to the goddess Pattini, associated with fertility, health, and justice, incorporated into folk Buddhist worship.
• Lindamulla Pattini Devalaya – Another major temple for the goddess Pattini, where rituals blend Buddhist piety with goddess cult traditions.
• Nawagamuwa Pattini Devalaya – A prominent Pattini temple with origins dating back to ancient times, attracting devotees of all faiths.
• Natha Devale – Dedicated to the bodhisattva Natha (Maitreya), also associated with Hindu deity Vishnu in local tradition.
• Barandi Kovil – A Tamil temple believed to reflect both Hindu and local Buddhist protective cults.

India

• Chudamani Vihara – A Buddhist vihara in Nagapattinam, India, with historical ties to Sri Lankan Theravāda traditions and maritime pilgrimages.
• Mount Potalaka – A legendary location considered the mythical abode of Avalokiteśvara, sometimes localized in southern India or Sri Lanka depending on the tradition.

Myanmar

• Mandalay Hill – A major pilgrimage destination in Myanmar believed to have been visited by the Buddha, offering panoramic views and numerous monasteries.
• Mount Popa – A sacred extinct volcano associated with Burmese nats (spirits), often syncretized with local Buddhist cosmology.
• Taung Kalat – A Buddhist monastery atop a volcanic plug near Mount Popa, also associated with nat worship.
• Kyaiktiyo Pagoda – Also known as the Golden Rock, this gravity-defying boulder is a prominent Burmese pilgrimage site believed to be balanced by a strand of the Buddha’s hair.

Thailand

• Wat Rakhangkhositaram – A royal Thai temple known for housing revered relics and historically significant monks.
• Wat Ratchasittharam Worawihan
• Wat Suthat – One of Bangkok’s oldest temples, featuring a large bronze Buddha image and influenced by Brahmanic ceremonial traditions.
• Thewasathan Bot Phram – A Brahmin temple in Bangkok that houses images of Hindu gods and serves as a ceremonial site for Thai royal rituals.
• Erawan Shrine – A popular urban shrine in Bangkok dedicated to the Hindu god Brahma, frequented by Buddhists and tourists alike.
• Sri Maha Mariamman Temple – A Hindu temple in Thailand that draws local Buddhist devotees, particularly women, seeking blessings from the goddess Mariamman.
• Wat Phra That Doi Suthep
• Wat Chao Chan
• Wat Chedi Ai Khai
• Wat Bang Nom Kho
• Phimai Historical Park

Cambodia

• Preah Ang Chek Preah Ang Chorm shrine – Cambodian shrine honoring local guardian spirits, often syncretized with Buddhist devotional rituals.
• Bayon – The richly decorated state temple of the Mahayana Buddhist King Jayavarman VII in Cambodia, famous for its massive smiling faces.
• Preah Vihear – A mountain temple dedicated to Shiva that reflects a blend of Hindu and Theravāda Buddhist religious usage over time.
• Preah Khan – A temple built by Jayavarman VII, functioning both as a Mahayana Buddhist monastery and Hindu temple.
• Ta Prohm – Known for its picturesque tree-covered ruins, originally a Buddhist monastery and university later merged with Hindu imagery.
• Banteay Kdei – A Buddhist temple in Angkor built during the reign of Jayavarman VII, reflecting late Mahayana and early Theravāda transitions.
• Mangalartha – A small Hindu temple in Angkor, dedicated to a deified royal priest and displaying syncretism with early Buddhist symbolism.
• Terrace of the Leper King – Part of Angkor Thom, believed to be associated with Yama, the god of death, reflecting Hindu-Buddhist cosmological overlap.
• Wat Athvea
• Wat Langka

Indonesia

• Borobudur – A massive Mahayana Buddhist monument in Java, Indonesia, designed as a mandala and reflecting tantric influences in Southeast Asian Buddhism. But important to the local Theravada community in Indonesia.

See also

• Luang Por
• Pali literature
• Kammaṭṭhāna
• Vajrayana
• Tantra
• Achar (Buddhism)
• Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism
• Azhaliism
• Traditional Cambodian medicine

Sources

• Mettanando Bhikkhu (1999), Meditation and Healing in the Theravada Buddhist Order of Thailand and Laos, Hamburg (Ph.D. thesis).
• Woodward, EL. (1916), Manual of a Mystic being a translation from the Pali and Sinhalese Work entitled The Yogavachara's Manual, Pali Text Society, London, reprint 1982, ISBN 0-86013-003-7.
• Bernon, Olivier de (2000). Le manuel des maîtres de kammaṭṭhān : étude et présentation de rituels de méditation dans la tradition du bouddhisme khmer (Ph.D. thesis)
• Bizot F (1976). Le figuier à cinq branches, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer I, PEFEO, vol.CVI1, park
• Bizot F (1980), 'La grotte de la naissance', Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer II, BEFEO, vol.LXVI1: 222–73, Paris.
• Bizot F (1981a). Le don de soi-même, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer III, PEFEO, vol.CXXX, Paris. ISBN 2-85539-730-8.
• Bizot F (1988), Les traditions de la pabbajja en Asie du Sud-Est, Recherches sur le bouddhisme khmer IV, Gijttingen. ISBN 3-525- 82454-8.
• Bizot F (1992). Le Chemin de Lankā, Textes bouddhiques du Cambodge no.f4, Collection de Ecole francaise de Extreme-Orient, Paris. ISSN 1150-2177, ISBN 2-85539-301-9.
• Bizot, F & E Lagirarde (1996). La pureté par les mots (Saddavimālā), Ecole francaise de Extreme-Orient, Paris, Chiang Mai. ISSN 1150-2177. ISBN 9782855 393049.
• Crosby,Kate (2013) Traditional Theravada Meditation and its Modern-Era Suppression Hong Kong: Buddha Dharma Centre of Hong Kong ISBN 9881682029
• Crosby, Kate (2019). Abhidhamma and Nimitta in Eighteenth-century Meditation Manuscripts from Sri Lanka: a Consideration of Orthodoxy and Heteropraxy in Boran Kammaṭṭhāna.
• Davids, Thomas William Rhys ed. (1896), The Yogavacara's manual of Indian mysticism as practised by Buddhists, London: PTS, Oxford University Press
• Foxeus, N. (2013). Esoteric Theravada Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar. Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis, 25, 55–79. https://doi.org/10.30674/scripta.67433
• Foxeus, N. (2016). "I am the Buddha, the Buddha is Me": Concentration Meditation and Esoteric Modern Buddhism in Burma/Myanmar. Numen, 63(4), 411–445
• Skilton, Andrew & Choompolpaisal, Phibul (2016). The Ancient Theravāda Meditation System, Borān Kammaṭṭhāna: Ānāpānasati or 'Mindfulness of The Breath' in Kammatthan Majjima Baeb Lamdub.

External links

General Resources on Esoteric and Theravāda Buddhism

• Esoteric Theravada | Southern Esoteric Buddhism
• WikiWicca
• Buddha Magic – Articles on Thai amulets, rituals, and esoteric history.
• Dharma Thai – Thai Buddhism and magic-related resources.
• Saiyasat – Thai esoteric and magical practices.
• Lersi Thai Hermit Path – Archived site on Thai hermits and spiritual practice.
• The Thai Occult – Thai magical traditions, amulets, and occult practices.
• Saengthai – Thai traditional religious rituals and dhamma talks.

Monasteries and Meditation Centers

• Abhayagiri Monastery – Thai Forest Tradition monastery in the U.S.
• Samatha Trust – British meditation organization teaching samatha-vipassana techniques.
• Meditation 101 On-Line Dhammakaya Meditation Center
• Dhamma Center
• Patana.org – Buddhist teachings and retreats.

Individual Teachers and Practitioners

• Suvaco Bhikkhu – Blog of a Theravāda monk with esoteric interests.
• Santidhammo – Reflections and writings of a Buddhist monk.
• Ajahn Spencer Website
• LuangPhor.com

Amulets and Ritual Arts

• SakYant.com
• Naresuan Thai Amulet
• Dhammayut Amulet
• Amulet City
• Thailand Amulets
• Ancient Amulet
• Magie du Bouddha
• Uncle Chow Amulet
• MyBuddha101 – Amulets, Buddhist talismans, and devotional objects.

Chanting and Pali Resources

• Itipiso.org – Pali chanting, Buddhist texts, and devotional practice.
• Buddho Foundation – Mindfulness and mantra-based practice inspired by the "Buddho" method.